Chapter 11 Nigeria

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Chapter 11Nigeria
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I. Public Authority Political Power

• National Question differing opinions about how
  political power should be distributed and how the
  government should be constructed.
• In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run
  deeper than other countries
• Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders
  nor its citizens agree on the basics of who
  should rule and how
• Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one
  nation
• Regional disagreements hostilities
• Problems traditionally solved by military force
  and authoritarianism

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II. Constitutionalism

• First constitution written in 1914
• Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995
• Current constitution written in 1995 has been
  heavily amended since its inception
• Acceptance of constitutionalism as a guiding
  set of principles has eluded Nigeria
• Military and civilian leaders have felt free to
  disobey and suspend constitutional principles or
  change constitutions not to their liking
• Without constitutionalism the National Question
  has been much harder to answer

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III. Legitimacy

• Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving
  independence in 1960, this makes establishing
  legitimate government more difficult
• Fragmentation tendency to fall apart along
  ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines.
• Contradictory Influence of the Past British
  colonial rule of law vs. Military
  rule/Personalized authority
• Corruption both military and civilian rule
  tainted with corruption. Citizens question the
  payment of taxes that get deposited in personal
  bank accounts
• General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993)
• General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

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IV. Precolonial Era (800-1600) Political
Traditions

• Trade Connections Sahara Desert Golden Trade
  of the Moors Niger River Ocean Access
• Influence of Islam Trade with North Africa put
  Hausa other groups in contact with Arab
  education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant
  political principle
• Kinship-based Politics village key political
  entity
• Complex Political Identities contrast between
  centralized state and local governance. (Oyo
  Ife centralized states in south vs. small
  trading-states in north)
• Democratic Impulses accountability,
  representative government, and democracy
  practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and
  Igbo.

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V. Colonial Era (1860-1960) Political Traditions

• Authoritarian Rule in order to achieve goals of
  economic domination British strengthened the
  authority of traditional chiefs, making them
  accountable only to British. This resulted in a
  loosening of rulers responsibility to the people
• Interventionist State colonialist trained
  chiefs to operate government to achieve economic
  goals. Checks on authority that existed in
  Britain did not have roots in Nigeria. This set
  in place expectations that citizens should
  passively accept actions of rulers.
• Individualism in Nigeria led to a tendency of
  chiefs to think about personal benefits of
  governance, rather than good of the community

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V. Colonial Era continued

• Christianity British introduction of
  Christianity created a split between Christian
  and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the
  north, Christianity in the south.
• Intensification of Ethnic Politics emergence of
  three dominant groups Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and
  Yoruba.
• British pitted groups against each other by
  promising rewards to some groups but not others.
• Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th
  century appealed to ethnic identities to gain
  followers and supporters of decolonization

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VI. Independence Era (1960-Present) Political
Traditions

• Parliamentary vs. Presidential System Nigeria
  operated under parliamentary system from
  1960-1979. Ethnic divisions made parliamentary
  system difficult, switched to presidential system
  with separate legislature and independent
  judiciary, but neither has been able to check
  power of the president
• Intensification of Ethnic Conflict After
  independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament
  because of large population. They formed a
  coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure
  their dominance, this created added tension and
  conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group
  of Igbo military officers seized power.

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VI. Independence Era continued

• Military Rule first military ruler, Agiyi
  Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his
  intention to end violence and political
  corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the
  Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War
  (1967-1970)
• Personalized Rule/Corruption
• Federalism in attempt to mollify ethnic tension
  and remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up
  federalist system, with powers being delegated to
  state and local governments. Under military
  executives however it did not work. Military
  presidents did not allow states to have
  legitimate sovereignty.
• Economic dependence on Oil

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VII. Political Culture

• Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)
• Clientelism exchanging political and economic
  favors among patrons and clients, corruption
  becomes problematic
• EX In Nigeria, in exchange for support a
  president may grant his clients a portion of the
  oil revenues.
• State Control/Underdeveloped Society
• Civil society refers to sectors of country that
  lie outside government control.
• In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life
  (economics, political participation, religious
  activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and
  limits democracy
• Modernity vs. Tradition
• Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era
• Religious Conflict
• Geographic Influence

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Geographic Influences

• Northwest dominated by two groups that combined
  as the Hausa-Fulani people, area is predominantly
  Muslim.
• Northeast area is home to many smaller groups,
  such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim.
• Middle Belt many smaller ethnic groups, mix of
  Muslims and Christians.
• Southwest Yoruba dominate the area. They are
  about 40 Muslim, 40 Christian, and 20 native
  religions.
• Southeast area dominated by the Igbo,
  predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant
  Christians as well
• Southern Zone area along Niger River Delta,
  people are from various small minority groups.

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VIII. Societal Characteristics Concerns

• Poverty 60 of all Nigerians live below poverty
  line, with many living in absolute poverty.
• Gap between Rich Poor similar to Mexico,
  however in Nigeria now growth is being made to
  alleviate this gap.
• Health Issues high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in
  every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.
• Literacy for males is 75.7 and for females
  60.6 (World averages are 83 men, 71 for women)

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IX. Political Cleavages

• Ethnicity Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic
  groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant.
  Three groups have very little in common and speak
  different languages
• Religion Islam, Christianity, and native
  religions.
• Region follow along ethnic and religious lines
• Urban vs. Rural Differences most political
  organizing, interest groups, and political
  protest takes place in cities
• Social Class deep divisions among social
  classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to
  Nigerias resources. Maintained their power by
  appealing to religious and ethnic identities.
  Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth
  associated with access to state treasury,
  educated elite would like to see adoption of
  democratic principles.

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X. Political Participation

• Patron-Clientelism
• Voting Behavior
• Attitudes toward Government
• Protests and Social Movements

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Prebendalism

• Personalized system of rule
• Personal offices treated like fiefdoms
• Large patronage networks based on personal
  loyalty
• Local government officials gain support of
  villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they
  receive favors for supporting their patron bosses
• Most favors exchanged by political elites
• Corruption and informal influence rampant
• Does however represent established form of
  political participation

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Voting Behavior

• Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959
• Voting patterns difficult to determine because of
  fraud, postponement, and election cancellation
• Political parties are numerous and fluid
• Babangidas annulment of 1993 election hurt
  political participation during the 1990s
• Local, state, national elections have continued
  however since the late 1990s
• About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the
  2003 election

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Attitudes toward Government

• Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government
• Corruption
• Military Rule
• Lack of Civil Society
• No commitment toward Democracy
• Babangida Abacha (Corrupt - Military
  Authoritarianism)

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Protests Social Movements

• Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)
• Targeted the international oil companies,
  especially in the Niger River Delta
• In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied
  ChevronTexacos Nigerian headquarters for 10 days
• Ethnic groups
• Womens Movement
• President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003
  campaign to include more women in cabinet and
  bureaucratic offices
• Nigerian legislature has very low female
  representation
• 6.4 in House of Representatives
• 3.7 in Senate

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XI. Political Institutions

• Multiple regime throughout its history
• North West well-developed large states and
  hereditary monarchies
• Hausa in west organized into powerful trading
  city-states
• South small, communal kinship-based rule
• British colonialism led to indirect rule, with
  chiefs leading on behalf of British government.
  (Authoritarian rule under British direction)
• Post-independence Military Authoritarianism
• Government structure formally federalist
  democratic, but does not generally operate as
  such
• British controlled economy led to current state
  controlled economy
• Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals
  (IMF World Bank) to save economy

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XII. Political Parties

• Factionalism led to creation of many political
  parties
• Failure to create coherent party system
• Parties formed and faded around personalities
• Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened
  ethnic and religious cleavages
• Independent National Election Committee (INEC)
  registered a number of parties following the
  death of Abacha in 1998
• In order to run candidates for the legislative
  and presidential elections of 1999, a party had
  to qualify by receiving at least 5 of the votes
  in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election
• This cut the number of parties significantly,
  only 5 parties were eligible to run candidates in
  the 2003 election

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Political Parties II

• Peoples Democratic Party (PDP)
• Well-established Party
• Began running candidates in 1998
• Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo,
  Christian from the North)
• Obesanjo received 62 of vote in 2003 election
• PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most
  of the governors throughout the country
• Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine
  accurate level of support for the PDP
• All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP)
• General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North,
  ran against Obesanjo
• Received about 32 of the vote
• His running mate and potential future candidate
  was Chuba Okadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast
• Other parties that ran presidential candidates
  include All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA),
  The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and
  the Justice Party
• Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a
  presidential candidate in 2003, but did receive
  9 of the votes for the legislative elections

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XIII. Elections Electoral Procedures

• Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels local,
  state, and national.
• National level citizens vote for the president,
  representatives to the National Assembly, and
  senators from their states.
• National Elections
• Presidential Elections
• After annulled election of 1993, first election
  took place in 1999, with another in 2003.
• If presidential candidate does not receive
  outright majority, a second ballot election takes
  place.
• President must receive at least 25 of the votes
  in 2/3 of the states
• A purely regional candidate can not win
• Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in
  attempt to unify Nigeria

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Elections Continued

• Legislative Elections
• Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36
  states, and one from federal capital territory of
  Abuja
• Elected by direct popular vote
• 360 representatives of National Assembly
  (formerly the House of Representatives)
• Elected from single member districts by plurality
  vote
• Regional representation dominates in both houses.
• Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature
• Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

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Election Fraud

• Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held
  without annulment or delay
• Public protest and several deaths have
  accompanied the last few elections, but none were
  as bad as many predicted they would be
• Several politicians were assassinated, including
  Marshall Harry, a leader of the ANPP
• Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
• Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared
  six million names to be fraudulent during 2003
  elections
• International teams concluded elections were
  corrupt
• Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed
  with fraudulent votes
• Voting patterns in the south in particular were
  suspicious

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XIV. Interest Groups

• Have actually played an important role in
  Nigerian politics
• A large number of civil society organizations
  often cooperate with political parties
• Religious interest groups important in Nigeria
• Christian Association of Nigeria protested when
  General Babangida changed Nigerias status in the
  Organization of Islamic Conference from observer
  to member
• Muslim civil society organizations in the north
  work to support the sharia court system
• Citizens have worked around military
  authoritarianism to have an impact on political
  life through labor unions, student groups, and
  populist groups.

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Interest Groups II

• Labor Unions
• Independent and politically influential prior to
  1980s
• Through the introduction of corporatism the
  Babangida regime limited the influence of labor
  unions
• A central labor organization supplanted the older
  unions, and only candidates approved by Babangida
  could be chosen as labor leaders
• In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly
  protested the governments attempt to raise oil
  prices for Nigerian consumers
• Business Interests
• Business interests have tended to work in
  collaboration with the military regimes, in
  return for the spoils related to the corruption
  of the elite class
• Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car
  rental firms have operated outside the realm of
  government and helped promote economic reforms of
  the 1990s
• Human Rights Groups
• Promote democratic reforms
• Include university students, teachers, civil
  liberties organizations, and professional groups
  (doctors, lawyers)
• These groups protested against the abuses of
  Babangida and Abacha

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XV. Mass Media

• Nigeria has well-developed, independent press
• General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his
  regime by closing several newspapers and
  magazines in Nigeria in 1994
• Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country
• Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the
  south
• Radio is the main source of information for most
  Nigerians
• All 36 states have their own radio stations

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XVI. Institutions of National Government

• Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)
• Three branches of government (Legislative,
  Executive, Judicial)
• Executive has been most dominant traditionally
• Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments
  has an executive, legislative, and judicial
  branch
• 2nd, 3rd, 4th Republics (all since 1979) had
  presidential system, with a strong executive
  theoretically checked by bicameral legislature
  and independent judiciary
• Currently neither federalism or checks balances
  operate, and state local governments are
  completely dependent on the central government

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Executive Branch

• 1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced
  parliamentary system based on British model
• Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party
  system and the legislature and prevented a prime
  minister from gaining the necessary authority to
  rule
• Belief was that a president could symbolize
  national unity and rise above weak party system
• U.S. presidential model with two-term limits
• 1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated
  palace coup, set precedent for military coups and
  military rule
• Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985
• Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993
• Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo

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Executive II

• Military Rule
• 7 military rulers have all ruled differently
• All promised transition to democracy
• Only Obasanjo in 1979 and General Abubakar in
  1999 delivered democratic transition
• Generals Buhari (1983-85), Babangida (1985-93),
  and Abacha (1993-98) used repression and violence
• All military civilian regimes concentrated
  power in hands of the executive

• Patrimonialism
• Generals/Presidents head of patron-client system
• Dispense government jobs and resources as rewards
  to political supporters
• Cabinet positions bureaucratic chiefs part of
  presidents patronage system
• Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has
  led to recurring coups

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XVII. Bureaucracy

• British installed elaborate civil service system
  during colonial period
• Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs
  within bureaucracy
• Civil service sector continued to grow after
  independence
• Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and
  inefficient. Bribery is common.
• Jobs in civil service are often awarded through
  the patron-client system, Prebendalism.

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Bureaucracy II

• Parastatals
• Most government agencies are parastatals, or
  corporations owned by the state. (Similar to
  Mexico)
• Provide commercial and social welfare services
• Board members are appointed by government
  ministers, and corporate executives are part of
  the presidents patronage system
• Parastatals provide public utilities such as
  water, electricity, public transportation, and
  agricultural subsidies
• Control major industries such as steel, defense
  industry, and petroleum

• State Corporatism
• Corporatism authoritarian political system that
  allows for political input from selected interest
  groups outside the government structure
• In Nigeria, this input is provided by
  parastatals, because they are controlled by the
  government it is referred to as State Corporatism
• Parastatals insure that the state controls
  private interest as well as fulfills social
  economic functions
• Parastatals serve as contact point between
  government business interests, but state
  ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt
  inept)

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XVIII. Legislature

• A parliamentary system until 1979
• Replaced by a bicameral legislature
• Nigerian legislature under military governments
  have had no power, under civilian government they
  have been unable to check power of the president
• Corruption scandals in 1999 president of the
  Senate and speaker of the lower house were
  removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the
  Senate president was removed for accepting
  kickbacks for a government contract

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Legislature II

• Senate
• 109 Senators
• 3 from each of the 36 states
• 1 from Abuja district
• Directly elected by popular vote
• Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse
• Only 4 of 109 Senators were women as of 2003
  elections

• National Assembly
• Formerly called House of Representatives
• 360 member representatives
• Single-member districts, elected by plurality
  vote
• Only 23 of the 360 representatives are women
  (2003)

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XIX. Judiciary

• Early years of after independence judiciary had
  great deal of autonomy
• Autonomy stripped by military decrees that
  nullified court decisions and setup
  quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system
• Judicial review was suspended
• Presidential cronies appointed as justices
• Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting
  laws in accordance with the Constitution, so
  judicial review exist in theory
• Court structure at state federal level, highest
  court is the Supreme Court
• Sharia courts exist in parallel existence with
  courts developed on British model
• Cases
• In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993
  election was detained and died in custody.
  Presiding judges changed often and critics
  attacked the military cronyism of the judicial
  system
• In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other
  activists were detained and executed under court
  orders arranged by the military and presided over
  by military officers

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XX. Military

• Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria
• Military in Government those that initiate
  coups and take over the responsibility of the
  executive branch
• Military in Barracks fulfills traditional
  duties of military, its leaders have been
  critical of military control of political power.
• Military has been subject to internal discord,
  military presidents often have to keep a close
  eye on other military leaders.
• Babangida protected his authority by constantly
  moving military personnel around and appointed
  senior officers through his patronage system
• Military is one of the few institutions that is
  truly national in character.
• Military has restored and maintained order during
  ethnic strife and conflict

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XXI. Public Policy

• Top-down policy-making process.
• Power concentrated in hands of the president
  cabinet ministers through channels established by
  patron clientelism
• Loyalty Pyramid senior officials supported by
  broader base of loyal junior officials
• State control of resources means that those in
  the pyramid get the spoils, they alone have
  access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of
  patronage structured pyramids includes
• Kaduna Mafia, Babangidas Boys, and Abachas
  Boys
• Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by
  guns (Force) therefore, protesting system can
  be dangerous
• Top-down, self-interested rule established by
  British during colonial era when the British
  relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade
  and resources benefited Great Britain

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XXII. Economic Issues

• Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a
  squandering of Nigerias wealth
• Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the
  population lives in poverty
• Large oil revenues have been pocketed by
  government officials
• Economic situation complicated by ethnic
  regional conflict
• In February 2001, federal government asked the
  Supreme Court to all the government to collect
  oil revenue and put it in a federal account
  (Revenue Sharing)
• Areas in the south along Niger River Delta
  protested this idea, they believed the policy was
  a way for northerners to take profits and revenue
  away from the south

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Economic Issues II

• Oil
• Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria
  international leverage
• OPEC member
• Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more
  important as a trade partner for other countries
  since 1970s
• Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria
  when oil prices drop
• DEBT as a result of drop in oil prices and lack
  of revenue surplus

• Structural Adjustment
• 1980s, Nigeria seeks assistance from
  international organizations to deal with debt
  crisis
• World Bank IMF involvement
• Restructure diversification of Nigerian economy
• Privatize parastatals
• Cut government spending
• Shock Treatment not very successful
• Parastatals still under government control
• Debt repayment had to be restructured

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XXIII. Federal Character

• Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for
  Nigerian political structure
• Federalism promises power-sharing
• Allows citizens more contact points with
  government
• Federal Character
• Recognition of all ethnic, religious, regional
  groups
• Nigerian Constitutional Provisions
• Senators represent diverse states
• Representatives elected from diverse districts
• President must receive 25 of the votes in 2/3 of
  the districts
• Negatives of Federalism
• Federalism bloats bureaucracy
• Promotes corruption within bureaucracy
• Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic
  groups
• Legislative branch suffers from gridlock
• Competition over government resources

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Federalism II

• Southerners argue that federalism will only exist
  when central government devolves some authority
  to the state local governments
• Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should
  control their own resources
• Redistribution of the regions oil wealth should
  be prohibited
• Southerners suggest that police duties should
  also be the responsibility of local and state
  governments
• This True Federalism Movement not supported by
  Northerners
• North has few resources and very little revenue
  to share
• Northerners benefit more from redistribution of
  wealth programs

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XXIV. Reforms

• Economic Reforms of the late 1990s
• Further privatization of state-owned industry
• Limitations on economic controls of the central
  government
• Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign
  banks and placed in the state treasury
• Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria
• Increase in public wages
• Hope of decreasing instances of corruption
• Increase in financial reserves as a result of
  stabilized oil prices