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Robert Merton

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Title: Robert Merton


1
RobertMerton
  • July 4, 1910
  • February 23, 2003

2
Biographical Background
  • Born Meyer R. Schkolnick in Philadelphia to
    working class Jewish Eastern European immigrant
    parents.
  • A frequent visitor of the nearby Carnegie
    Library, The Academy of Music, Central Library,
    and the Museum of the Arts.
  • Changed his name while working as an amateur
    magician in high school.
  • Began his sociological career at Temple
    University studying with George E. Simpson and
    then under Pitrim A. Sorokin at Harvard.
  • Greatly influenced by Sorokin who chaired his
    dissertation committee, along with Carle
    Zimmerman, George Sarton, and Talcott Parsons.
  • Dissertation was on the social history of the
    scientific development in England in the
    seventeenth-century.
  • Mertons second marriage was to fellow
    sociologist Harriet Zuckerman.
  • He had one son and two daughters, including
    Robert C. Merton, who won the 1997 Nobel Prize in
    economics.

3
Honors and Recognition
  • Taught at Harvard, then as professor and chairman
    of the Department of Sociology at Tulane
    University (1939).
  • 1941- joined the faculty of Columbia University,
    became Giddings Professor of Sociology in 1963.
  • 1974 - achieved the highest rank at Columbia
    University as a University Professor and later a
    Special Service Professor upon retirement in
    1979.
  • One of the first sociologists elected to the
    National Academy of Sciences.
  • First American sociologist elected to the Royal
    Swedish Academy of Sciences.
  • Member of the American Philosophical Society, the
    American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
    National Academy of Education, and Academica
    Europaea .
  • 1961 received a Guggenheim fellowship
  • 1983-88 the first sociologist to be named a
    MacArthur Fellow
  • Awarded honorary degrees from over twenty
    institutions including Yale, Harvard, Columbia,
    Chicago, and many universities abroad
  • 1994 received the U.S. National Medal of
    Science, the first sociologist to receive this
    award

4
Mertons Major Publications
  • Social Theory and Social Structure
    (1949, 1957.
    1968)
  • The Sociology of Science (1973)
  • Sociological Ambivalence (1976)
  • On the Shoulders of Giants A
    Shandea Postscript (1985)
  • The Travels and Adventures of
    Serendipity A Study in Sociological
    Semantics and the Sociology of
    Science (2004)

5
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6
Major Theories
  • Theories of the middle range
  • Fills in the blanks between Abstracted
    Empiricism and Grand (all-inclusive) Theory (C.
    Wright Mills terms).
  • Influenced by Weber and Durkheim.
  • Functional and Dysfunctional analysis
  • Functionalism is central to interpreting data
    based uponconsequences for larger structures.
  • Society is analyzed with reference to cultural
    and social structures in regard to how well or
    badly they are integrated.
  • Implies that all institutions are inherently
    serving for society, emphasizing the importance
    and existence of dysfunctions.
  • Approaches conflict theory.
  • Can explain and discover alternatives to
    dysfunction only if the dysfunctional aspects of
    institutions are recognized.
  • Influenced by Durkheim and Parsons.

7
Major Theories (continued)
  • Manifest and latent functions
  • Manifest functions expected or observed
    consequences
  • Latent functions those that are not recognized
    or intended.
  • Attention to latent functions increases
    understanding of the larger society in going
    beyond individual motivation.
  • Says that dysfunctions can also be manifest or
    latent
  • Functional alternatives
  • Societies must have certain characteristics to
    ensure survival
  • Emphasizes that other institutions are able to
    fulfill the same functions
  • Important because this reduces the tendency of
    functionalism to imply approval of the status quo

8
Mertons Critique of Functionalisms Fundamental
Premises
9
Concept of Dysfunction
  • What are Dysfunctions?
  • Defined as the consequences of a social practice
    or behavior pattern that undermines the
    stability of a social system.
  • Merton paid especial attention to their
    existence.
  • Important to be alert to and pay attention to the
    dysfunctional aspects of social practices and
    institutions.
  • Noticing dysfunctional aspects of society helps
    to explain the development and persistence of
    alternatives, often initially seen as
    problematical and or deviant.

10
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11
Sociological Theories of the Middle Range
  • Sociological Theory in general refers to
    logically interconnected sets of propositions
    from which empirical uniformities can be
    derived.
  • Theories of the middle range-lie between the
    minor but necessary working hypotheses that
    evolve in abundance during day-to-day research
    and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to
    develop a unified theory that will explain all
    the observed uniformities of social behavior,
    social organization, and social change

12
Sociological Theories of the Middle Range
  • Theories of the Middle Range are principally used
    in sociology to guide specific empirical
    inquiries.
  • Such theories are more than simply empirical
    generalizations - isolated propositions that
    summarize the observed uniformities of
    relationships between two or more variables.

13
Anomie Mertons Reconceptualization
  • Re-conceptualizes Durkheim's concept of Anomie.
  • Not necessarily an overall, or even localized
    breakdown in the normative structure.
  • The cultural system and social structure of
    society is basically intact, workable,
    functional.
  • In fact, to a certain extent, deviance
    represents the functionality of the system as
    an expression of functional alternatives.
  • Basic Premise A disjuncture within the cultural
    system between the Goals (values) which
    define our lives and the culturally
    determined, institutionalized, legitimate
    Means (norms) for achieving them.

14
Social Structure and Anomie
  • Merton argues that deviance results from the
    culture and structure of society itself. He
    begins from the standard functionalist position
    of value consensus that is, all members of
    society share the same values.
  • Since members of society are placed in different
    positions in the social structure (e.g. they
    differ in terms of class position), they do not
    have the same opportunity of realizing the shared
    values. This situation can generate deviance.

15
Cultural goals and institutionalized means
  • Members of American society share the major
    values of American culture, particularly the goal
    of success, largely measured in terms of wealth
    and material possessions.
  • In America the accepted ways of achieving success
    are through education, talent, hard work, drive,
    determination and ambition.
  • In a balanced society an equal emphasis is placed
    upon both cultural goals and institutionalized
    means, and members are satisfied with both. In
    American society great importance is attached to
    success less is attached to how you achieve
    success.
  • Therefore, there is a tendency to reject the
    rules of the game and strive for success by any
    means necessary. In this situation where
    anything goes, norms no longer direct
    behaviour, and deviance is tolerated if not
    encouraged.

16
(Adopted by Merton)
17
Mertons Typology of Individual Adaptation
explanation of deviant behavior
Modes of Adaptation Institutionalized Means Cultural Goals
Conformity
Innovation -
Ritualism -
Retreatism - -
Rebellion -/ -/
  • acceptance
  • - rejection
  • /- rejection of current values, replacement
    with others

18
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19
Conformity
  • Social order is maintained because modal behavior
    of members represent the cultural patterns, even
    if they are secularly changing.
  • Behavior ? basic values ? society
  • Society does NOT exist if there is no deposit of
    values shared by interacting individuals.
  • These values are the most common and widely
    diffused.
  • They keep society rolling

20
Conformity
  • Members of society conform both to the goal of
    success and the normative means of reaching them.
    They strive for success
  • by means of accepted norms and channels.

21
Innovation
  • Emphasis on success-goal ? wealth and power.
  • occurs when the individual has assimilated the
    cultural emphasis upon the Goal without equally
    internalizing the institutional Norms governing
    ways and means for its attainment.
  • Drives both business-like striving on one side
    of the mores and sharp creative practices on
    the other side of the mores.

22
Innovation
  • This response rejects the normative means of
    achieving success and turns to deviant means,
    always questionable, often criminal.

"Bernie" Madoff
former stockbroker, investment advisor,
financier, and the former non-executive chairman
of the NASDAQ stock market, and the convicted
operator of the Ponzi scheme considered to be
the largest financial fraud 18 billion in
in U.S. history!
23
Ritualism
  • Scaling down/abandoning cultural goals for
    personal aspirations.
  • Although attempting not to accept cultural
    influences, they abide by institutional norms.
  • Not generally considered to represent a social
    problem.
  • Fairly frequent because largely dependent upon
    ones lack of achievement or ambition.
  • Ritualist familiar and instructive comments-
    Im satisfied with what Ive got. - Dont aim
    high and you wont be disappointed. - I just
    work here I dont make the rules.

24
Ritualism
  • Serves as a private escape
  • Avoid dangers and frustrations of cultural norms.
  • Holds on to safe routines and institutional
    norms.
  • Often found in the Lower-Middle Class
  • Parents exert pressure to children about moral
    mandates of society.
  • Upward social mobility not easy to obtain.

25
Ritualism
  • Ritualism those who select
    this alternative are deviant
    because they have largely
    abandoned the commonly
    held cultural goals of success.

26
Retreatism
  • May be least common form of adaptation
  • in the society but not of it
  • outcasts, vagabonds, chronic drunkards, drug
    addicts, street people, etc.
  • Individuals have assimilated standards of both
    cultural goals and institutional means ? not
    accessible ? individual is shut off.
  • Escape mechanisms defeatism, quietism,
    resignation, detachment.

27
Retreatism
  • Solution for deviant person abandon both goals
    and means and become asocial.
  • Condemned because represents a non-productive
    liability.
  • Positive side minimal frustrations while
    seeking rewards.
  • Negative side socially disinherited.
  • Adaptations are largely private and isolated.

28
Retreatism
  • Applies to psychotics, autistics, pariahs,
    outcasts, vagrants, vagabonds, tramps, drug
    addicts and chronic drunkards. They have
    internalized both the cultural goals and the
    institutionalized means, yet are unable to
    achieve success.

29
Rebellion
  • Collective adaptation.
  • Involves genuine transvaluation.
  • Experience of frustration leads to full
    denunciation of previously prized values.
  • Key difference resentment condemns the object
    being craved rebellion condemns craving.
  • More likely to occur if the institutional system
    is a barrier to satisfying goals.
  • Goal to stay a part of society, but transition
    between social groups.

30
Rebellion
  • It is a rejection of both the success goals and
    the institutionalized means, and it replaces them
    with different goals and means.

31
Rebellion
32
Unanticipated Consequencesof Purposive Social
Action
  • Crucial innovation to the field of Sociology.
  • A look at unanticipated consequences.
  • Social actions have both intended and unintended
    consequences.
  • Discovery requires sociological analysis.
  • Can be both negative and beneficial.

Example
Unanticipated consequence aspirin is also an
anti-coagulant which can help reduce the risk of
a heart-attack.
Aspirin, used most commonly as pain reliever
33
Another Example
Beneficial Consequence The sinking battleships
created a permanent home to the creatures of the
sea as it acted as an artificial coral
reef. Negative Consequence The oil from the
battleships pollute the ocean water. This can
lead to environmental hazards and to the death of
many species.
In WW II, many battles took place on or near the
shore. Artillery on land firing at a
battleship at sea with the intention of sinking
the ship.
SINK IT!
34
Distinguishing Manifest and Latent Functions
  • There is often confusion between the conscious
    motivations of social behavior and its objective
    consequences.
  • Difference between motives and functions
  • Manifest Functions intended and objective
    consequences for a specified unit (person,
    subgroup, social or cultural system) which
    contribute to its adjustment or adaptation.
  • Latent Functions unintended and unrecognized
    consequences.

35
Heuristic Purposes of the Distinction
  • Clarifies the analysis of seemingly irrational
    data
  • Distinction aids the interpretation of social
    practices
  • which persist even though their manifest
    purpose is not not achieved.
  • When group behavior does not attain its supposed
    purpose, there is an inclination to attribute its
    occurrence to lack of intelligence, innocence,
    naiveté.
  • Concept of latent functions extends beyond
    whether or not behavior attained its purpose.
  • Directs attention towards individual
    personalities involved in behavior, and the
    persistence and continuity of the larger group.

36
Examples
  • 1. Hopi rain dance does not produce rainfall, so
    it is labeled as superstitious and the
    Hopi people are viewed as ignorant or
    primitive.
  • However, the Hopi rain dance ceremonial has
    non- purposed, latent functions -
    reinforces group identity, reaffirms
    group norms, provides a communal
    experience of the Sacred with all that implies.
  • 2. As recently as the 1980s the average birth
    rate in the India was 4.6 children per
    family, resulting in an apparent national
    overpopulation and so was seen as
    irrational and counter-productive to social
    development.
  • Whats a functional
    explanation?

37
A functional explanation
  • In the 1980s the average Indian male could
    expect a number of years of unemployment when he
    got older. India had no social security program
    and the typical worker did not earn enough to
    save for these unemployed years. His only hope,
    then, was to be provided for by his children. It
    took an average of 1.1 wage earners to support
    one unemployed adult at minimum subsistence, but
    because it takes two to produce a child, each
    family needed at least 2.2 wage-earning children.
    Because half the children born were female, and
    females were essentially unemployable in India at
    the time, 4.4 children were required. To cover
    infant and child mortality, this number had to be
    adjusted upward to 4.6 children. Clearly, nobody
    was figuring this out on an explicit basis. It
    represents a dramatic example of a latent social
    phenomenon, both functional and dysfunctional.

38

Impact of Mertons Theory
  • If confined to the study of manifest functions
  • the sociologist will be concerned with
    determining whether a practice instituted for a
    particular purpose does, in fact, achieve this
    purpose.
  • Once expanded to the study of latent functions
  • the sociologist will examine the familiar (or
    planned) social practice to determine the latent,
    unrecognized, functions and make distinctive
    intellectual contributions

39
Impact of Mertons Theory
  • Findings concerning latent functions represent an
    increment in knowledge because they describe
    practices and beliefs in terms which are not
    common knowledge.
  • They preclude the substitution of naïve moral
    judgments for thoughtful sociological analysis.
  • Naïve moral judgments in society usually result
    from the manifest consequences of a social
    practice or code of behavior not critically
    examined.

40
Impact of Mertons Theory
  • Analysis in terms of latent functions, then,
    often runs counter to the prevailing moral
    evaluations.
  • Considered from the functional viewpoint
  • Persistent social patterns and social structures
    perform positive functions which, at the time,
    arenot adequately fulfilled by other existing
    patterns and structures.
  • Publicly criticized behaviors and organizations
    often defined as deviant are, under present
    conditions, very likely satisfying basic and
    important latent functions.

41
Multiple Variables to Consider Simultaneously
42
Mertons General Paradigm of Sociological /
Structural AmbivalenceStructurally created
Strain 
  • opposing normative tendencies in the social
    definition of a role or status

43
The Paradigm in General
  • In its most extended form Incompatible
    normative expectations of attitudes, beliefs, and
    behavior are assigned to a status or to a set of
    statuses.
  • In its most restricted form
  • Incompatible normative expectations are
    incorporated within a single role of a single
    status.

44
Specific Conflicts Contradictions
  • Conflict among statuses within a status-set a
    pattern of conflict of interests or of values
    within the status-set.
  • Conflict between several roles associated with a
    particular status.
  • Contradictions among general cultural values
    held by all members of society, i.e., not
    specific to a particular status.

45
Specific Conflicts Contradictions
  • Conflict or disjunction between culturally
    prescribed aspirations and socially structured
    avenues for realizing these aspirations (the
    opportunity structure).
  • Contradiction or conflict between cross-cultural
    statuses.
  • Contradiction or conflict between reference group
    anchors or identifications.

46
Role-Set Theory
  • Begins with the concept that each social status
    involves not a single associated role, but an
    array of roles (a role-set).
  • Example A medical student plays not only the
    role of student vis-à-vis the correlative status
    of his teachers but also an array of other roles
    relating diversely to others in the system
    other medical students, physicians, nurses,
    social workers, medical technicians, non-medical
    students, university administrative personnel,
    and the like.

47
Role-Set Theory
  • Role-Set theory raises the general but definite
    problem of identifying the social mechanisms
    which create and alleviate conflict.
  • Illustrates another aspect of sociological
    theories of the middle range.
  • Largely consistent with a variety of schools of
    sociological theory Marxist theory, structural
    functional analysis, social behaviorism,
    Sorokins integral sociology, and Parsons s
    theory of action.

48
Role-Set Theory
  • There is always a potential for differing
    expectations among those in a role-set as to what
    is appropriate conduct for a status-occupant
    given that other members of a role-set hold
    various social positions differing from those of
    the status-occupant in question.
  • This gives rise to a double question What
    social mechanisms, if any, operate to counteract
    the potential instability of role-sets and,
    correlatively, under which circumstances do these
    social mechanisms fail to operate, with resulting
    inefficiency, confusion, and conflict?

49
Individuals as Status-Occupants status-setsrole-s
ets norm-clusters
50
Sociology A Systematic Approach
SOCIOLOGYSSS
51
Mertons Sequence
52
Obligations and Responsibilities
Normative Expectations (Rules)
Social Status
Cognitive Attributes Beliefs, Values, Motivations
and Attitudes
Interests
Power Authority
Social Capital
53
Obligations and Responsibilities What am I
supposed to do?
Where do these come from?
Social Status
How do they change over historical time? i.e.,
fathers and parenting.
Individuals who occupy a given status must take
these into account.
The extent to which individuals who occupy a
given status live up to the responsibilities and
obligations that are called for varies.
54
Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed
to do all this?
Guidelines, rules for social conduct. They
indicate how one ought to act or behave in
social settings Prescribed -
Proscribed Permitted - Preferred
Social Status
Norms vary from one culture to another. Norms
vary from one sub-culture to another.
Norms vary over historical time.
55
Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed
to do all this?
Do not confuse norms with actual action or
behavior.
Social Status
The extent to which people consider norms
legitimate varies.
The extent to which people comply with norms
varies.
Norms vary in their importance Folkways -
norms for routine or casual interactions Mores -
norms derived from moral valuesTaboos - norms
that place behavior out of bounds Laws - norms
that are codified and are sanctioned
56
S T A B I L I T Y
Obligations and Responsibilities What am I
supposed to do?
Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed
to do all this?
Social Status
Cognitive Attributes Beliefs, Values, Motivations
and Attitudes
Mutually reinforcing and reciprocal Expectations.
Whether we recognize it or not, we possess a
vast storehouse of social knowledge and, to
varying degrees, know what is expected of us
what to expect of others.
57
Interests Conflict is built into society
Conflict is built into the very fabric of
society. It is as normal - and healthy - as the
air we breathe and usually occurs in socially
patterned ways.
Social Status
By virtue of occupying different Positions,
people will have different sets of LEGITIMATE
interests, values and attitudes.
Thus a great deal of conflict in society is
structured it is the result of people
status-occupants trying to live up to the
expectations placed upon them.
58
Interests Conflict is built into society
Social Status
If conflict is built into the very fabric of
society, how is it managed?
What are the patterns and functions of conflict?
How are conflicts whether legitimate or Not
resolved?
59
Power AuthorityBoth are necessary for society
Power the capacity to impose ones will over
others, even against the resistance of others
coercion.
Social Status
Authority the capacity to have others comply
with your wishes - even if they would prefer not
to - because they recognize the legitimacy of the
request.
Power and authority are usually not individual
attributes, they are located in the positions
people occupy i.e., U.S. President.
The extent to which power and authority are
exercised by status-occupants varies.
60
Power AuthorityBoth are necessary for society
Power and authority are not equally distributed
in all social statuses
Social Status
employer - employee male - female professor -
student dean - professor wealthy - poor white -
non-white
As a result, we should expect to find different
outcomes in society, as indeed we do
racial disparities in criminal sentencing
unequal pay for men and women
61
Social Capital Access to Opportunities and
Resources Inequality is built into society
Social Status
Central or Controlling Statuses Different
statuses provide occupants different degrees of
access to resources and opportunities - some
more, some less. Examples the
double standard the opportunity
structure the glass ceiling
62
Status-sets
63
Master and Dominant Statuses
Master Status that status within an individuals
status-set that has special importance for
social identity, often shaping a persons entire
life.
Dominant Status that status within an
individuals status-set that is given priority
when the behavioral expectations associated with
two or more statuses come into
conflict. Salient Status that status within an
individuals status-set that is elicited in a
particular situation.
64
Master Statuses
65
Multiple Statuses
66
from The Statue Within An Autobiography
An Illustration of Multiple Statuses
by François Jacob (1920 2013)
  • In the following excerpt, Professor of Medicine
    and Nobel Prize Laureate François Jacob reflects
    on what has been an obviously dramatic life.
  • I have portrayed his series of selves as a
    series of statuses which he has occupied and/or
    transitioned through in his life sequence.

67
  • I see my life less as continuity than as a series
    of different selves I might almost say
    strangers.
  • At the end of the line, I see the little boy, the
    only child, cajoled by a sweet mother, spoiled by
    all, playing (too often alone) while mouthing
    words that he tries out and twists ad infinitum.
    Then comes the adolescent, swollen with vanity,
    full of ambition, a shade backward with girls.
  • Then, the medical student preparing to become a
    surgeon.
  • The fighting man of the Free French forces,
    thrown across North Africa with an infantry
    battalion from Chad.
  • The wreck of a man, lacerated by grenades, who
    returns to Paris and make a stab at 10 different
    professions.
  • The beginner at the Pasteur Institute,
    discovering in awe the world of research and
    biology.
  • All this gang marching in single file.

68
François Jacob continues
  • I have trouble imaging that, when the name
    Francois Jacob is called, all these selves can
    leap up and answer, Present!
  • When I come across my name in a report card, a
    military document, or an old newspaper article,
    it seems to refer to fellows who happen to have
    the same name as I. Would I recognize them if I
    passed them on the street?
  • Like the bird contemplating the shell it has just
    broken out of, and saying, Me? In there? Never!

69
Status-sets identities
Age 54
Husband
Father
Race White
Professor
Friend
Executive Director
Status-Activation Salient Statuses
Since individuals occupy multiple statuses, which
specific status becomes activated at any given
time? How is this socially negotiated by
partners in interactions? How are discrepant
activations resolved?
70
Status-sets identities
Age 54
Husband
Father
Race White
Professor
Friend
Executive Director
Since individuals occupy multiple statuses they
are subject to cross-pressures expectations to
comply with contending expectations of different
statuses.
to what
extent are the beliefs, values
attitudes, interests and social standing
attached to different statuses in an
individuals status-set
consistent? and then how are
the inevitable inconsistencies
that arise managed?
Status-consistency
71

Status-sets
72
Jane Does Status Set
Example
73
Status-conflict Status-strain
Age 54
Husband
Father
Race White
Professor
Friend
Executive Director
Conflict living up to the demands and
obligations of one status precludes
fulfilling the demands and obligations of
another status.
Strain fulfilling all of the various status
demands and obligations, but at
less than peak effectiveness having
to prioritize, make trade offs, cut corners.
74
Status-conflict or Status-strain
Role-conflict or Role-strain
75
Role-set of the status of Professor
Professor
Students
Colleagues
Deans
Support Staff
Community
(each with a variable person-set)
76
Multiple Statuses
77
Multiple Statuses
If you can identify your counter role occupants
they will lead you to your role-set.
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