Title: Robert Merton
1RobertMerton
- July 4, 1910
- February 23, 2003
2Biographical Background
- Born Meyer R. Schkolnick in Philadelphia to
working class Jewish Eastern European immigrant
parents. - A frequent visitor of the nearby Carnegie
Library, The Academy of Music, Central Library,
and the Museum of the Arts. - Changed his name while working as an amateur
magician in high school. - Began his sociological career at Temple
University studying with George E. Simpson and
then under Pitrim A. Sorokin at Harvard. - Greatly influenced by Sorokin who chaired his
dissertation committee, along with Carle
Zimmerman, George Sarton, and Talcott Parsons. - Dissertation was on the social history of the
scientific development in England in the
seventeenth-century. - Mertons second marriage was to fellow
sociologist Harriet Zuckerman. - He had one son and two daughters, including
Robert C. Merton, who won the 1997 Nobel Prize in
economics.
3Honors and Recognition
- Taught at Harvard, then as professor and chairman
of the Department of Sociology at Tulane
University (1939). - 1941- joined the faculty of Columbia University,
became Giddings Professor of Sociology in 1963. - 1974 - achieved the highest rank at Columbia
University as a University Professor and later a
Special Service Professor upon retirement in
1979. - One of the first sociologists elected to the
National Academy of Sciences. - First American sociologist elected to the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences. - Member of the American Philosophical Society, the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
National Academy of Education, and Academica
Europaea . - 1961 received a Guggenheim fellowship
- 1983-88 the first sociologist to be named a
MacArthur Fellow - Awarded honorary degrees from over twenty
institutions including Yale, Harvard, Columbia,
Chicago, and many universities abroad - 1994 received the U.S. National Medal of
Science, the first sociologist to receive this
award
4Mertons Major Publications
- Social Theory and Social Structure
(1949, 1957.
1968) - The Sociology of Science (1973)
- Sociological Ambivalence (1976)
- On the Shoulders of Giants A
Shandea Postscript (1985) - The Travels and Adventures of
Serendipity A Study in Sociological
Semantics and the Sociology of
Science (2004)
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6Major Theories
- Theories of the middle range
- Fills in the blanks between Abstracted
Empiricism and Grand (all-inclusive) Theory (C.
Wright Mills terms). - Influenced by Weber and Durkheim.
- Functional and Dysfunctional analysis
- Functionalism is central to interpreting data
based uponconsequences for larger structures. - Society is analyzed with reference to cultural
and social structures in regard to how well or
badly they are integrated. - Implies that all institutions are inherently
serving for society, emphasizing the importance
and existence of dysfunctions. - Approaches conflict theory.
- Can explain and discover alternatives to
dysfunction only if the dysfunctional aspects of
institutions are recognized. - Influenced by Durkheim and Parsons.
7Major Theories (continued)
- Manifest and latent functions
- Manifest functions expected or observed
consequences - Latent functions those that are not recognized
or intended. - Attention to latent functions increases
understanding of the larger society in going
beyond individual motivation. - Says that dysfunctions can also be manifest or
latent - Functional alternatives
- Societies must have certain characteristics to
ensure survival - Emphasizes that other institutions are able to
fulfill the same functions - Important because this reduces the tendency of
functionalism to imply approval of the status quo
8Mertons Critique of Functionalisms Fundamental
Premises
9Concept of Dysfunction
- What are Dysfunctions?
- Defined as the consequences of a social practice
or behavior pattern that undermines the
stability of a social system. - Merton paid especial attention to their
existence. - Important to be alert to and pay attention to the
dysfunctional aspects of social practices and
institutions. - Noticing dysfunctional aspects of society helps
to explain the development and persistence of
alternatives, often initially seen as
problematical and or deviant.
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11Sociological Theories of the Middle Range
- Sociological Theory in general refers to
logically interconnected sets of propositions
from which empirical uniformities can be
derived. - Theories of the middle range-lie between the
minor but necessary working hypotheses that
evolve in abundance during day-to-day research
and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to
develop a unified theory that will explain all
the observed uniformities of social behavior,
social organization, and social change
12Sociological Theories of the Middle Range
- Theories of the Middle Range are principally used
in sociology to guide specific empirical
inquiries. - Such theories are more than simply empirical
generalizations - isolated propositions that
summarize the observed uniformities of
relationships between two or more variables.
13Anomie Mertons Reconceptualization
- Re-conceptualizes Durkheim's concept of Anomie.
- Not necessarily an overall, or even localized
breakdown in the normative structure. - The cultural system and social structure of
society is basically intact, workable,
functional. - In fact, to a certain extent, deviance
represents the functionality of the system as
an expression of functional alternatives. - Basic Premise A disjuncture within the cultural
system between the Goals (values) which
define our lives and the culturally
determined, institutionalized, legitimate
Means (norms) for achieving them.
14Social Structure and Anomie
- Merton argues that deviance results from the
culture and structure of society itself. He
begins from the standard functionalist position
of value consensus that is, all members of
society share the same values. - Since members of society are placed in different
positions in the social structure (e.g. they
differ in terms of class position), they do not
have the same opportunity of realizing the shared
values. This situation can generate deviance.
15Cultural goals and institutionalized means
- Members of American society share the major
values of American culture, particularly the goal
of success, largely measured in terms of wealth
and material possessions. - In America the accepted ways of achieving success
are through education, talent, hard work, drive,
determination and ambition. - In a balanced society an equal emphasis is placed
upon both cultural goals and institutionalized
means, and members are satisfied with both. In
American society great importance is attached to
success less is attached to how you achieve
success. - Therefore, there is a tendency to reject the
rules of the game and strive for success by any
means necessary. In this situation where
anything goes, norms no longer direct
behaviour, and deviance is tolerated if not
encouraged. -
16(Adopted by Merton)
17Mertons Typology of Individual Adaptation
explanation of deviant behavior
Modes of Adaptation Institutionalized Means Cultural Goals
Conformity
Innovation -
Ritualism -
Retreatism - -
Rebellion -/ -/
- acceptance
- - rejection
- /- rejection of current values, replacement
with others
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19Conformity
- Social order is maintained because modal behavior
of members represent the cultural patterns, even
if they are secularly changing. - Behavior ? basic values ? society
- Society does NOT exist if there is no deposit of
values shared by interacting individuals. - These values are the most common and widely
diffused. - They keep society rolling
20Conformity
- Members of society conform both to the goal of
success and the normative means of reaching them.
They strive for success - by means of accepted norms and channels.
21Innovation
- Emphasis on success-goal ? wealth and power.
- occurs when the individual has assimilated the
cultural emphasis upon the Goal without equally
internalizing the institutional Norms governing
ways and means for its attainment. - Drives both business-like striving on one side
of the mores and sharp creative practices on
the other side of the mores.
22Innovation
- This response rejects the normative means of
achieving success and turns to deviant means,
always questionable, often criminal.
"Bernie" Madoff
former stockbroker, investment advisor,
financier, and the former non-executive chairman
of the NASDAQ stock market, and the convicted
operator of the Ponzi scheme considered to be
the largest financial fraud 18 billion in
in U.S. history!
23Ritualism
- Scaling down/abandoning cultural goals for
personal aspirations. - Although attempting not to accept cultural
influences, they abide by institutional norms. - Not generally considered to represent a social
problem. - Fairly frequent because largely dependent upon
ones lack of achievement or ambition. - Ritualist familiar and instructive comments-
Im satisfied with what Ive got. - Dont aim
high and you wont be disappointed. - I just
work here I dont make the rules.
24Ritualism
- Serves as a private escape
- Avoid dangers and frustrations of cultural norms.
- Holds on to safe routines and institutional
norms. - Often found in the Lower-Middle Class
- Parents exert pressure to children about moral
mandates of society. - Upward social mobility not easy to obtain.
25Ritualism
- Ritualism those who select
this alternative are deviant
because they have largely
abandoned the commonly
held cultural goals of success.
26Retreatism
- May be least common form of adaptation
- in the society but not of it
- outcasts, vagabonds, chronic drunkards, drug
addicts, street people, etc. - Individuals have assimilated standards of both
cultural goals and institutional means ? not
accessible ? individual is shut off. - Escape mechanisms defeatism, quietism,
resignation, detachment.
27Retreatism
- Solution for deviant person abandon both goals
and means and become asocial. - Condemned because represents a non-productive
liability. - Positive side minimal frustrations while
seeking rewards. - Negative side socially disinherited.
- Adaptations are largely private and isolated.
28Retreatism
- Applies to psychotics, autistics, pariahs,
outcasts, vagrants, vagabonds, tramps, drug
addicts and chronic drunkards. They have
internalized both the cultural goals and the
institutionalized means, yet are unable to
achieve success.
29Rebellion
- Collective adaptation.
- Involves genuine transvaluation.
- Experience of frustration leads to full
denunciation of previously prized values. - Key difference resentment condemns the object
being craved rebellion condemns craving. - More likely to occur if the institutional system
is a barrier to satisfying goals. - Goal to stay a part of society, but transition
between social groups.
30Rebellion
- It is a rejection of both the success goals and
the institutionalized means, and it replaces them
with different goals and means.
31Rebellion
32Unanticipated Consequencesof Purposive Social
Action
- Crucial innovation to the field of Sociology.
- A look at unanticipated consequences.
- Social actions have both intended and unintended
consequences. - Discovery requires sociological analysis.
- Can be both negative and beneficial.
Example
Unanticipated consequence aspirin is also an
anti-coagulant which can help reduce the risk of
a heart-attack.
Aspirin, used most commonly as pain reliever
33Another Example
Beneficial Consequence The sinking battleships
created a permanent home to the creatures of the
sea as it acted as an artificial coral
reef. Negative Consequence The oil from the
battleships pollute the ocean water. This can
lead to environmental hazards and to the death of
many species.
In WW II, many battles took place on or near the
shore. Artillery on land firing at a
battleship at sea with the intention of sinking
the ship.
SINK IT!
34Distinguishing Manifest and Latent Functions
- There is often confusion between the conscious
motivations of social behavior and its objective
consequences. - Difference between motives and functions
- Manifest Functions intended and objective
consequences for a specified unit (person,
subgroup, social or cultural system) which
contribute to its adjustment or adaptation. - Latent Functions unintended and unrecognized
consequences.
35Heuristic Purposes of the Distinction
- Clarifies the analysis of seemingly irrational
data -
- Distinction aids the interpretation of social
practices - which persist even though their manifest
purpose is not not achieved. - When group behavior does not attain its supposed
purpose, there is an inclination to attribute its
occurrence to lack of intelligence, innocence,
naiveté. - Concept of latent functions extends beyond
whether or not behavior attained its purpose. - Directs attention towards individual
personalities involved in behavior, and the
persistence and continuity of the larger group.
36Examples
- 1. Hopi rain dance does not produce rainfall, so
it is labeled as superstitious and the
Hopi people are viewed as ignorant or
primitive. - However, the Hopi rain dance ceremonial has
non- purposed, latent functions -
reinforces group identity, reaffirms
group norms, provides a communal
experience of the Sacred with all that implies. - 2. As recently as the 1980s the average birth
rate in the India was 4.6 children per
family, resulting in an apparent national
overpopulation and so was seen as
irrational and counter-productive to social
development. - Whats a functional
explanation?
37A functional explanation
- In the 1980s the average Indian male could
expect a number of years of unemployment when he
got older. India had no social security program
and the typical worker did not earn enough to
save for these unemployed years. His only hope,
then, was to be provided for by his children. It
took an average of 1.1 wage earners to support
one unemployed adult at minimum subsistence, but
because it takes two to produce a child, each
family needed at least 2.2 wage-earning children.
Because half the children born were female, and
females were essentially unemployable in India at
the time, 4.4 children were required. To cover
infant and child mortality, this number had to be
adjusted upward to 4.6 children. Clearly, nobody
was figuring this out on an explicit basis. It
represents a dramatic example of a latent social
phenomenon, both functional and dysfunctional.
38Impact of Mertons Theory
- If confined to the study of manifest functions
- the sociologist will be concerned with
determining whether a practice instituted for a
particular purpose does, in fact, achieve this
purpose. - Once expanded to the study of latent functions
- the sociologist will examine the familiar (or
planned) social practice to determine the latent,
unrecognized, functions and make distinctive
intellectual contributions
39Impact of Mertons Theory
- Findings concerning latent functions represent an
increment in knowledge because they describe
practices and beliefs in terms which are not
common knowledge. - They preclude the substitution of naïve moral
judgments for thoughtful sociological analysis. - Naïve moral judgments in society usually result
from the manifest consequences of a social
practice or code of behavior not critically
examined.
40Impact of Mertons Theory
- Analysis in terms of latent functions, then,
often runs counter to the prevailing moral
evaluations. - Considered from the functional viewpoint
- Persistent social patterns and social structures
perform positive functions which, at the time,
arenot adequately fulfilled by other existing
patterns and structures. - Publicly criticized behaviors and organizations
often defined as deviant are, under present
conditions, very likely satisfying basic and
important latent functions.
41Multiple Variables to Consider Simultaneously
42Mertons General Paradigm of Sociological /
Structural AmbivalenceStructurally created
Strain
- opposing normative tendencies in the social
definition of a role or status
43The Paradigm in General
- In its most extended form Incompatible
normative expectations of attitudes, beliefs, and
behavior are assigned to a status or to a set of
statuses. - In its most restricted form
- Incompatible normative expectations are
incorporated within a single role of a single
status.
44Specific Conflicts Contradictions
- Conflict among statuses within a status-set a
pattern of conflict of interests or of values
within the status-set. - Conflict between several roles associated with a
particular status. - Contradictions among general cultural values
held by all members of society, i.e., not
specific to a particular status.
45Specific Conflicts Contradictions
- Conflict or disjunction between culturally
prescribed aspirations and socially structured
avenues for realizing these aspirations (the
opportunity structure). - Contradiction or conflict between cross-cultural
statuses. - Contradiction or conflict between reference group
anchors or identifications.
46Role-Set Theory
- Begins with the concept that each social status
involves not a single associated role, but an
array of roles (a role-set). - Example A medical student plays not only the
role of student vis-à-vis the correlative status
of his teachers but also an array of other roles
relating diversely to others in the system
other medical students, physicians, nurses,
social workers, medical technicians, non-medical
students, university administrative personnel,
and the like.
47Role-Set Theory
- Role-Set theory raises the general but definite
problem of identifying the social mechanisms
which create and alleviate conflict. - Illustrates another aspect of sociological
theories of the middle range. - Largely consistent with a variety of schools of
sociological theory Marxist theory, structural
functional analysis, social behaviorism,
Sorokins integral sociology, and Parsons s
theory of action.
48Role-Set Theory
- There is always a potential for differing
expectations among those in a role-set as to what
is appropriate conduct for a status-occupant
given that other members of a role-set hold
various social positions differing from those of
the status-occupant in question. - This gives rise to a double question What
social mechanisms, if any, operate to counteract
the potential instability of role-sets and,
correlatively, under which circumstances do these
social mechanisms fail to operate, with resulting
inefficiency, confusion, and conflict?
49Individuals as Status-Occupants status-setsrole-s
ets norm-clusters
50Sociology A Systematic Approach
SOCIOLOGYSSS
51Mertons Sequence
52Obligations and Responsibilities
Normative Expectations (Rules)
Social Status
Cognitive Attributes Beliefs, Values, Motivations
and Attitudes
Interests
Power Authority
Social Capital
53Obligations and Responsibilities What am I
supposed to do?
Where do these come from?
Social Status
How do they change over historical time? i.e.,
fathers and parenting.
Individuals who occupy a given status must take
these into account.
The extent to which individuals who occupy a
given status live up to the responsibilities and
obligations that are called for varies.
54Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed
to do all this?
Guidelines, rules for social conduct. They
indicate how one ought to act or behave in
social settings Prescribed -
Proscribed Permitted - Preferred
Social Status
Norms vary from one culture to another. Norms
vary from one sub-culture to another.
Norms vary over historical time.
55Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed
to do all this?
Do not confuse norms with actual action or
behavior.
Social Status
The extent to which people consider norms
legitimate varies.
The extent to which people comply with norms
varies.
Norms vary in their importance Folkways -
norms for routine or casual interactions Mores -
norms derived from moral valuesTaboos - norms
that place behavior out of bounds Laws - norms
that are codified and are sanctioned
56S T A B I L I T Y
Obligations and Responsibilities What am I
supposed to do?
Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed
to do all this?
Social Status
Cognitive Attributes Beliefs, Values, Motivations
and Attitudes
Mutually reinforcing and reciprocal Expectations.
Whether we recognize it or not, we possess a
vast storehouse of social knowledge and, to
varying degrees, know what is expected of us
what to expect of others.
57Interests Conflict is built into society
Conflict is built into the very fabric of
society. It is as normal - and healthy - as the
air we breathe and usually occurs in socially
patterned ways.
Social Status
By virtue of occupying different Positions,
people will have different sets of LEGITIMATE
interests, values and attitudes.
Thus a great deal of conflict in society is
structured it is the result of people
status-occupants trying to live up to the
expectations placed upon them.
58Interests Conflict is built into society
Social Status
If conflict is built into the very fabric of
society, how is it managed?
What are the patterns and functions of conflict?
How are conflicts whether legitimate or Not
resolved?
59Power AuthorityBoth are necessary for society
Power the capacity to impose ones will over
others, even against the resistance of others
coercion.
Social Status
Authority the capacity to have others comply
with your wishes - even if they would prefer not
to - because they recognize the legitimacy of the
request.
Power and authority are usually not individual
attributes, they are located in the positions
people occupy i.e., U.S. President.
The extent to which power and authority are
exercised by status-occupants varies.
60Power AuthorityBoth are necessary for society
Power and authority are not equally distributed
in all social statuses
Social Status
employer - employee male - female professor -
student dean - professor wealthy - poor white -
non-white
As a result, we should expect to find different
outcomes in society, as indeed we do
racial disparities in criminal sentencing
unequal pay for men and women
61Social Capital Access to Opportunities and
Resources Inequality is built into society
Social Status
Central or Controlling Statuses Different
statuses provide occupants different degrees of
access to resources and opportunities - some
more, some less. Examples the
double standard the opportunity
structure the glass ceiling
62Status-sets
63Master and Dominant Statuses
Master Status that status within an individuals
status-set that has special importance for
social identity, often shaping a persons entire
life.
Dominant Status that status within an
individuals status-set that is given priority
when the behavioral expectations associated with
two or more statuses come into
conflict. Salient Status that status within an
individuals status-set that is elicited in a
particular situation.
64Master Statuses
65Multiple Statuses
66from The Statue Within An Autobiography
An Illustration of Multiple Statuses
by François Jacob (1920 2013)
- In the following excerpt, Professor of Medicine
and Nobel Prize Laureate François Jacob reflects
on what has been an obviously dramatic life. - I have portrayed his series of selves as a
series of statuses which he has occupied and/or
transitioned through in his life sequence.
67- I see my life less as continuity than as a series
of different selves I might almost say
strangers. - At the end of the line, I see the little boy, the
only child, cajoled by a sweet mother, spoiled by
all, playing (too often alone) while mouthing
words that he tries out and twists ad infinitum.
Then comes the adolescent, swollen with vanity,
full of ambition, a shade backward with girls. - Then, the medical student preparing to become a
surgeon. - The fighting man of the Free French forces,
thrown across North Africa with an infantry
battalion from Chad. - The wreck of a man, lacerated by grenades, who
returns to Paris and make a stab at 10 different
professions. - The beginner at the Pasteur Institute,
discovering in awe the world of research and
biology. - All this gang marching in single file.
68François Jacob continues
- I have trouble imaging that, when the name
Francois Jacob is called, all these selves can
leap up and answer, Present! - When I come across my name in a report card, a
military document, or an old newspaper article,
it seems to refer to fellows who happen to have
the same name as I. Would I recognize them if I
passed them on the street? - Like the bird contemplating the shell it has just
broken out of, and saying, Me? In there? Never!
69Status-sets identities
Age 54
Husband
Father
Race White
Professor
Friend
Executive Director
Status-Activation Salient Statuses
Since individuals occupy multiple statuses, which
specific status becomes activated at any given
time? How is this socially negotiated by
partners in interactions? How are discrepant
activations resolved?
70Status-sets identities
Age 54
Husband
Father
Race White
Professor
Friend
Executive Director
Since individuals occupy multiple statuses they
are subject to cross-pressures expectations to
comply with contending expectations of different
statuses.
to what
extent are the beliefs, values
attitudes, interests and social standing
attached to different statuses in an
individuals status-set
consistent? and then how are
the inevitable inconsistencies
that arise managed?
Status-consistency
71 Status-sets
72Jane Does Status Set
Example
73Status-conflict Status-strain
Age 54
Husband
Father
Race White
Professor
Friend
Executive Director
Conflict living up to the demands and
obligations of one status precludes
fulfilling the demands and obligations of
another status.
Strain fulfilling all of the various status
demands and obligations, but at
less than peak effectiveness having
to prioritize, make trade offs, cut corners.
74Status-conflict or Status-strain
Role-conflict or Role-strain
75Role-set of the status of Professor
Professor
Students
Colleagues
Deans
Support Staff
Community
(each with a variable person-set)
76Multiple Statuses
77Multiple Statuses
If you can identify your counter role occupants
they will lead you to your role-set.