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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

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Title: OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH


1
  • OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SAFETY
  • MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
  • AUDITOR TRAINING COURSE
  • IRCA REG. NO. A16834

2
1 Introduction
  • 1.1 Background Development
  • During the Industrial Revolution, technological
    advances introduced and increased the use of
    machinery and toxic materials in the workplace.
    As a result, workers in factories faced health
    and safety risks that were previously unheard of.
  • Health and safety problems and hazards that
    workers face include the following
  • Poor working conditions
  • Exposure to toxic materials or chemicals
  • Long working hours
  • Work-induced stress
  • Excessive noise levels
  • Risks to life, eyes, and limb while working with
    machinery

3
  • In 1970, (OSHA) was established as a
    comprehensive occupational safety and health law
    to assure so far as possible for every working
    man and woman in the nation safe and healthful
    working conditions and to preserve human
    resources 1.
  • In addition, OHSAS 18001 specification and the
    accompanying OHSAS 18002 guidelines have been
    developed
  • OHS management system to enable organization to
    control its OHS risks and improve its
    performance.

4
  • 1.2 Concepts of Occupational Health
  • Defined as
  • "that science and art devoted to the
    anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and
    control of those environmental factors or
    stresses arising in or from the workplace, which
    may cause sickness, impaired health and
    well-being, or significant discomfort among
    workers or among the citizens of the
    community."i

5
  • 1.3 Concepts of Safety Engineering
  • Interdisciplinary in nature ought to be applied
    early in system development.
  • Control monetary and physical loses
  • Safety costs should be justified like other
    forces competing for limited organizational
    resources.
  • Safety should be considered a long-term
    investment.
  • Figure 1.1 shows that its application requires
    integration with many other functions

6
Figure 1.1 Safety Interactions
7
  • 1.4 Philosophy Supporting OHS Management System
    Standards
  • safety denotes concern for physical injuries that
    might be experienced by the worker
  • Health denotes concern for physiological
    injuries
  • welfare refers to concern for a range of
    psychological conditions.
  • this type of approach promotes a holistic
    appreciation of a workers well being as well as
    a comprehensive understanding of the contribution
    of workplace conditions to it.

8
  • The basic principles of a holistic approach to
    workplace health and safety are thus
  • The health and safety of a worker is influenced
    by conditions of the workplace and by non- work
    related factors that can be potentiated by the
    workplace.
  • Workplace effects on human health and safety are
    not restricted to only the on- site workplace or
    the worker

9
Figure 1.2 Holistic Overview of the Workplace,
Environmental Quality Human Communityi
10
  • 1.5 Modern OHS Legislation
  • At both national and international levels, the
    modern corporation is perceived as having both a
    moral and a legal responsibility to protect its
    employees from
  • Workplace sources of injury and
  • Workplace insults to a workers pre- existing
    debilitationi.
  • By ensuring proper responsibilities, common
    problems such as those stated below can be
    avoided.
  • Lack of sufficient authority to implement safety-
  • Isolation from higher decision makers who must
    bear the potential liability associated with
    workplace injury
  • Isolation from production- level personnel have
    primary responsibility for production but they
    play a crucial role in the implementation of an
    effective safety program.

11
  • 1.6 Scope of OHS Management Systems
  • The scope of an OHS management system,
    applicable to any organization, includes
  • Establishing an OHS management system to
    eliminate or minimize risk to employees and other
    interested parties who may be exposed to OHS
    risks associated with its activities
  • Implementing, maintaining and continually
    improving an OHS management system
  • Assuring itself of its conformance with its
    stated OHS policy
  • Demonstrating such conformance to others

12
  • 1.7 Definitions Terminology
  • The terms and definitions used in the OHSAS
    18001 specifications are
  • Accident
  • Audit
  • Continual Improvement
  • Hazard
  • Hazard identification
  • Incident
  • NOTE An accident where no ill heath, injury,
    damage, or other loss is also referred to as a
    near miss. The term Incident includes
    near-misses.
  • Interested parties
  • Non-conformance

13
  • Objectives
  • Occupational health and safety
  • OHS management system
  • Organization
  • NOTE For organizations with more than one
    operating unit, a single operation unit may be
    defined as an organization.
  • Performance
  • NOTE Performance measurement includes of OHS
    management activities and results.
  • Risk
  • Risk assessment
  • Safety
  • Tolerable risk

14
Chapter 2 Introduction to OHS Standards
Applications
  • 2.1 Influence of the Working Environment
  • There are various kinds of positive and negative
    factors in the working environments
  • Physical demands may refer to manual lifting
    loads and extended working hours.
  • For mental demand, it appears to be dependent on
    the level of mental work pressure and the
    experience of the worker involved.
  • Use of ear protection will be in order as
    excessive noise levels (gt85 to 90 dB) can cause
    hearing loss.
  • Proper illumination is necessary to avoid having
    workers headaches and fatigue as a result of
    eyestrain.
  • Working temperature can cause great discomfort if
    it is too high or too low.

15
  • mental and emotional factors to consider
  • Lifting the morale of workers can do wonders to
    improve productivity.
  • A pleasant working place with convenient
    facilities will increase the workers morale,
    resulting in worker efficiency.

16
  • 2.2 OHS Management System Model
  • The first three clauses of the OHSAS 18001 1999
    specifications follow the ISO 14001 approach
    closely. The three common clauses are
  • Scope
  • Informative references
  • Definitions
  • Organizations using the ISO 14001 approach should
    use the OHSAS 18002 guidelines in carrying out
    the respective approach for clause 4.
  • Figure 2.1 illustrate the order of flow of OHSAS
    elements.

17
Figure 2.1 OHS Management System Model for
OHSAS 18001 System Elements
18
  • 2.3 OHS Management System Elements
  • The six elements for occupational health
    safety management system are based on
  • Initial Status Review
  • OHS Policy
  • Planning
  • Implementation and Operation
  • Checking and Corrective Action
  • Management Review

19
  • 2.3.1 Initial Status Review
  • An initial review of a companys existing
    arrangements for managing OHS should be carried
    out prior to implementation.
  • Performing an initial status review also provides
    information on the scope, adequacy and current
    status of the OHS management system.

20
  • 2.3.2 OHS Policy
  • The OHS policy should be defined and authorized
    by the organizations top management.
  • Such a policy establishes an overall sense of
    direction and sets up the principles of action
    for an organization.i
  • It demonstrates formal commitment of an
    organization towards good OHS management,
    particularly that of the organizations top
    management.ii

21
  • 2.3.3 Planning
  • Plans must be formulated to fulfill the OHS
    policy.
  • Hazard identification should be performed with
    risk assessment.
  • Control measures should be implemented if
    necessary.
  • The legal requirements that are applicable to
    OHS should be identified
  • The goals and objectives of the OHS system
    established.
  • After identifying problematic areas, appropriate
    corrective actions should be implemented.

22
  • 2.3.4 Implementation and Operation
  • responsibility of a person at the most senior
    management level.
  • Necessary training should be carried out, to
    ensure workers understand their safety and health
    responsibilities
  • Updates should be spread throughout the
    organization effectively through an efficient
    communication system.
  • In addition, a system of documentation should be
    established.
  • OHS should be fully integrated where each
    employee appreciates the implications of OHS.
  • In the case of foreseeable emergencies,
    contingency plans should be prepared in advance.

23
  • 2.3.5 Checking and Corrective Action
  • Monitoring and measurement of performance ought
    to be performed on a regular basis.
  • The measurement of performance of the OHS
    management system will give an indication of its
    effectiveness.
  • Areas that need improvement can be identified
    and followed up by taking necessary actions.
  • Corrective actions should be taken as soon as any
    deficiencies are found.
  • Relevant records of OHS actions taken should be
    made to meet legal requirements.
  • Periodically, audits conducted by independent
    personnel will give a more in-depth look at the
    system.

24
  • 2.3.6 Management Review
  • Involve the making of several decisions, based on
    the organizations structure and size.
  • Matters such as frequency of audits and the
    effectiveness of the OHS system as a whole and
    in its individual elements are considered
    frequently.
  • Following an audit, a management review decides
    on what should be done about identified problems.
  • In any management programs, the system has to be
    reviewed constantly to ensure its continuing
    suitability, adequacy and effectiveness.

25
CHAPTER 3 INTERPRETATION OF THE OHSAS 18001 1999
SPECIFICATIONS
  • 3.1 Overview of the OHSAS 18001 1999
  • OHSAS 18001 1999 is developed together with the
    OHSAS 18002, Guidelines for the implementation of
    OHSAS 18001
  • OHSAS 18001 is developed such that it is
    compatible with the ISO 9001 1994 (Quality) and
    ISO 14001 1996 (Environmental) management
    systems standards.
  • to facilitate the easy integration of quality,
    environmental and occupational health and safety
    management systems
  • Nevertheless, it is not a pre- requisite that an
    organization has to comply to ISO 9000 or ISO
    14000 requirements for the operation of OHSAS
    18001.

26
  • An OHS management system must meets both the
    OHSAS 18001 specification and all local legal
    requirements as well.
  • Relevant procedures and documentation, which
    relates to records and periodic reviews, should
    be added where necessary
  • The elements of an effective OHS approach are
    presented in Figure 3.1.

27
Continual Improvement
OHS Policy
Management Review
Planning
Checking and Corrective Action
Implementation Operation
Figure 3.1 Elements of an OHS management
systemi
28
  • 3.2 Clauses in OHSAS 18001
  • clauses and requirements in the OHSAS 18001 1999
  • Clause 4.1 General Requirements
  • states that the organization shall establish and
    maintain an OHS management system,
  • Depending on the size of the organization and the
    nature of its activities, the extent of
    documentation and the resources devoted to it
    have to be developed and adapted to fit into the
    organization under review.
  • Clause 4.2 OHS Policy
  • states overall health and safety objectives and a
    commitment to improving health and safety
    performance.
  • an indication of the organizations overall sense
    of direction and principles of action.

29
Figure 3.2 OHS Policyi
30
  • In planning the policy, the management shall
    ensure that
  • It is appropriate to the nature and scale of the
    organizations OHS risks.
  • There is a commitment to continual improvement
  • There is a commitment to at least comply with
    current applicable OHS legislation and other
    requirements  
  • It is documented, implemented and maintained as
    called for by the OHSAS Standards. 
  • All employees are educated on their individual
    OHS obligations.
  • It can be made available to interested parties.
  • It is reviewed periodically to ensure its
    relevance and suitability to the organization.

31
  • Clause 4.3 Planning

Figure 3.3 Planningi
32
  • OHSAS 18001 specifies planning requirements
    based on four categories before any
    implementation is to be carried out. They are
    addressed as follows
  • Clause 4.3.1 Planning for Hazard Identification,
    Risk Assessment Risk Control
  • control measures to include routine and
    non-routine activities, activities of all
    personnel (including subcontractors and visitors)
    having access to the workplace, and facilities at
    the workplace.
  • defined with respect to the scope, nature and
    timing to ensure that it is proactive rather than
    reactive
  • Is consistent with operating experience and the
    capabilities of risk control measures used
  • Provide ways to classify and identify risks to be
    eliminated, or controlled by measures defined in
    clauses 4.3.3 and 4.3.4.
  • Provide input to determine the facility
    requirements, training needs and operational
    controls,
  • Monitoring mechanisms to ensure the effectiveness
    and timeliness of their implementation.

33
  • The purpose of this requirement is to provide for
    total appreciation of all significant OHS
    hazards in the organizations domain using the
    process of risk assessment.
  • The following elements of decision-making shall
    be reflected in the risk assessment.
  • Identification of risks.
  • Evaluation of risks within the existing control
    measures in place.
  • Decision on the tolerability of this residual
    risk.
  • Identification of any additional control measures
    considered necessary.
  • Evaluation of whether these are sufficient to
    reduce the risks to tolerable levels.

34
  • Clause 4.3.2 Legal and other requirements
  • organization aware of all applicable OHS
    regulations and how they can affect its
    activities.
  • legal and other OHS requirements applicable to
    the organization identified and up to date.
  • organization able to access these legal documents
    conveniently, and communicate the information to
    other parties who have an interest in it.
  • Clause 4.3.3 Objectives
  • take into account legal and other requirements
  • reasonable, achievable and communicated to the
    employees efficiently.
  • Suitable indicators shall be established so that
    objectives can be reviewed and monitored
    regularly.

35
  • Clause 4.3.4 OHS Management Programs
  • has to be established so as to achieve the OHS
    objectives
  • important to include the documentation of the
    responsibility and authority for achievement of
    the objectives at relevant functions and levels
    of the organization, and the means and time scale
    by which the objectives are to be obtained.
  • individuals and tasks responsible for the
    deliverance of the objectives at relevant levels
    can be identified.
  • It aids the organization in allocating suitable
    talents, responsibilities and time- frames for
    jobs to be done.
  • The OHS management programs shall be reviewed at
    regular and planned intervals in order to keep up
    with changes.

36
  • Clause 4.4 Implementation and Documentation

Figure 3.4 Implementation and Operationi
37
  • Clause 4.4.1 Structure and Responsibility
  • The roles, responsibilities and authorities of
    all personnel who are involved in the running of
    OHS risks of the organization shall be defined,
    documented and made known
  • The top management holds the greatest
    responsibility of ensuring the proper
    implementation of the OHS management system.  
  • The management representative or appointee shall
  • Ensure the OHS management system requirements
    are established, implemented and maintained in
    accordance with the OHS specification,
  • Ensure reports on the performance of the OHS
    management system are presented to the top
    management for the review and making of improved
    adjustments

38
  • Clause 4.4.2 Training, Awareness and Competence
  • Employee awareness in the following areas is
    important and procedures shall be established and
    maintained
  • The importance of conformance to the OHS policy
    and procedures, and the requirements of the
    management system
  • Both actual and potential OHS consequences,
    their work activities and the OHS benefits of
    improved personnel performance
  • Their roles and responsibilities in conforming to
    the OHS policy and requirements of the
    management system.
  • Potential consequences of straying from specified
    operating procedures.
  • Employees need to be educated on their specific
    responsibilities and the roles expected of them
    to maintain the OHS management system.
  • Appropriate records of individuals training and
    competency shall be maintained.

39
  • Clause 4.4.3 Consultation and Communication
  • the management has to establish and document
    proper procedures for easy and accurate
    communication.
  • The freedom of employee involvement and
    consultation arrangements shall be established so
    that there is an effective and open communication
    of OHS information. There shall also be
    arrangements to
  • Involve employees in the development and review
    of policies, and procedures to manage risks,
    including the carrying out or review of risk
    assessments relevant to their own activities.
  • Consult employees over changes affecting the
    workplace OHS such as the introduction of new
    equipment, new working procedures or work
    patterns.
  • Represent employees on health and safety matters.
  • Inform employees their OHS representative to the
    management and the selected management appointee.

40
  • Clause 4.4.4 Documentation
  • The organization shall document all important and
    essential information and maintain up to date
    sufficient documentation to ensure that its OHS
    system can be adequately understood and
    efficiently operated.
  • it shall describe the core elements of the
    management system and their interaction, as well
    as provide direction to the related documentation
    at the same time.
  • It may be more convenient and effective instead,
    to establish an overview document describing the
    inter-relation between the existing procedures
    and overall OHSAS requirements

41
  • Clause 4.4.5 Document and Data Control
  • This clause calls for the organization to
    establish and maintain proper procedures for
    controlling all the important documents and data
    required by this OHSAS 18001 specification.  
  • There shall be a written procedure to define the
    controls for the approval, issue and removal of
    safety documentation, together with the control
    of safety records and data. Arrangements must be
    made ensure that specified documents and data
  • a) Can be located.
  • b) Are periodically reviewed, revised as
    necessary and approved for adequacy by authorized
    personnel.
  • c) Are current and up-dated, and available at all
    locations where operations essential to the
    effective functioning of the OHS system are
    performed.
  • d) Are removed from all points of issue and
    points of use or otherwise assured against
    unintended use once they are obsolete.
  • e) Are suitably identified, particularly for
    archival documents and data retained for legal or
    knowledge preservation purposes or both.

42
  • Clause 4.4.6 Operational Control
  • Control measures shall be applied to those
    operations and activities associated with
    identified risks.
  • The organization can carry out the preparations
    by
  • a)  Establishing and maintaining documented
    procedures to cover situations where their
    absence could lead to deviations from the OHS
    policy and their objectives.
  • b)  Stipulating operating criteria in the
    procedures.
  • c) Establishing and maintaining procedures
    related to the identified OHS risks of goods,
    equipment and services purchased and/ or used by
    the organization and communicating relevant
    procedures and requirements to suppliers and
    contractors.
  • d) Establishing and maintaining procedures for
    the design of workplace, process, installations,
    machinery, operating procedure and work
    organization, including their adaptation to human
    capabilities in order to eliminate or reduce OHS
    risks at their source.

43
  • Clause 4.4.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response
  • The organization shall have to establish and
    maintain plans and procedures to identify the
    potential for, and responses to such incidents
    and emergency situations and for preventing the
    likely illnesses, injuries or hazards associated
    with them.
  • The organization shall develop an emergency plan
    and identify and provide appropriate emergency
    equipment.
  • The emergency preparedness and response plans
    and procedures shall be reviewed frequently,
    especially after the occurrence of any incidents
    and emergencies.
  • The response capability of the emergency plan
    needs to be tested for feasibility and rehearsed
    where viable for employee awareness.

44
  • Clause 4.5 Checking and Corrective Action


Figure 3.5 Checking and Corrective Actioni
45
  • Clause 4.5.1 Performance Measurement and
    Monitoring
  • These procedures shall provide for
  • Both qualitative and quantitative measures,
    appropriate to the needs of the organization.
  • Monitoring the extent to which the organizations
    OHS objectives are met.
  • Proactive measures of performance to monitor
    compliance with the OHS management program,
    operational criteria and applicable legislation
    and regulatory requirements.
  • Reactive measures of performance to monitor
    accidents, ill health, incidents (including near
    misses) and other historical evidence of
    deficient OHS performance.
  • Recording of data and results of monitoring and
    measurement sufficient to facilitate subsequent
    corrective and preventative action analysis.

46
  • Performance management proposes to determine
    whether OHS plans and risk controls have been
    implemented and achieved,
  • to learn from any system failures including
    hazardous events, and to promote implementation
    by providing feedback and information for
    continual review and improvement.
  • Monitoring equipment, if required for any
    performance measurement and monitoring, have to
    be calibrated and maintained.
  • Proper procedures and records for the calibration
    and maintenance process shall have to be
    retained.

47
  • Clause 4.5.2 Accidents, Incidents, Non-
    conformances and Corrective Preventive Action
  • The organization shall establish and maintain
    procedures to define responsibility and authority
    for
  • a.The handling and investigation of accidents,
    incidents or non- conformances.
  • b.Taking action to mitigate any consequences
    arising from accidents, incidents or non-
    conformances.
  • c.The initiation and completion of corrective and
    preventive action.
  • d.Confirmation of the effectiveness of corrective
    and preventive actions that have been taken.
  • Report and evaluation of these occurrences are
    necessary so that suitable corrective and
    preventive actions can be implemented.
  • The investigation process and results and
    subsequent corrective or preventive actions have
    to be documented for future reference or
    analysis.

48
  • Clause 4.5.3 Records and Records Management
  • Records shall be kept to demonstrate that the
    OHS system operates effectively, and that
    processes have been carried out under safe
    conditions.
  • Safety records that document the management
    system and conformance to the requirements shall
    be legible, identifiable and traceable to the
    activities involved.
  • These records have to be maintained and stored
    properly so that they are readily retrievable and
    protected against damage, deterioration or loss.
  • Their retention times before disposal have to be
    established and recorded as appropriate to the
    system and the organizations rules.

49
  • Clause 4.5.4 Audit
  • An audit program and its procedures shall have to
    be established and maintained. Periodic OHS
    audits have to be conducted to
  • Determine whether the OHS management system
    conforms to planned arrangements for OHS
    management including the requirements of this
    OHS specification, has been properly implemented
    and maintained and is effective in meeting the
    organizations policy and objectives.
  • b.     Review the results of previous audits.
  • c.     Provide information of the audits results
    to management.
  • Audit program, including its schedule, has to be
    based on the results of previous audits and that
    of the risk assessments conducted.  
  • The results of all audits shall be fed back to
    all relevant parties as soon as possible to allow
    corrective actions to be taken.

50
  • Clause 4.6 Management Review

Checking and Conductive Action
Management Review
Internal Factors
External Factors
Policy
Figure 3.6 Management Reviewi
51
  • it is essential that the system is reviewed and
    evaluated periodically to ensure its continuity,
    suitability, adequacy and effectiveness.
  • During the review, the management will evaluate
    the policy, objectives and other elements of the
    OHS management system for possible changes in
    view of the management system audit results, with
    changes in circumstances and commitment to
    continual improvement.
  • Changing circumstances may include changes in
    legislation, varying expectations of interested
    parties, changes in the organizations products
    or activities, technological advances, marketing
    information, and feedback from OHS incidents.
  • the management review needs to be documented.

52
CHAPTER 4 ENSURING EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION
OPERATION
  • 4.1 Organizational Structure, Responsibility
    Accountability
  • Ultimate responsibility for occupational health
    and safety rests with the top management.
  • The management plays a central role in
    implementing the occupational health and safety
    (OHS) program and determining its effectiveness.
     
  • Accidents will decrease profits, as additional
    money has to be dealt out for workers
    compensation, damages and other hidden costs.  
  • While organizing an OHS safety program, the
    management has to bear in mind that conflicts
    between staff, departments or management are
    inevitable

53
  • The management shall always be aware of the
    latest changes to health and safety requirements,
    legal OHS issues and policies.
  • Managers shall also provide visible demonstration
    of their commitment to their staff, by visiting
    sites, being involved in accident investigation,
    and attending safety awareness courses and
    meetings.  
  •  

54
  • 4.1.1 The Health and Safety Committee
  • A committee drawn from various departments has
    many advantages, allowing greater committee scope
    and reach.
  • In all cases, the committee shall be chaired by
    the person of highest authority to ensures the
    committee is empowered to perform its tasks
    without facing too much resistance.

55
  • The health and safety committee will have various
    tasks at hand. To begin with, methods for
    obtaining feedback from all levels within the
    organization shall be established.
  • Other tasks that the committee can organize are
    as follows
  • Inspections conducted on workplaces to detect
    hazards.
  • Hold regular meetings to discuss accident and
    illness prevention methods, hazards discovered in
    the workplace, and injury and illness records and
    so on.
  • Investigate accidents that occurred, and devise
    plans to prevent recurrence.
  • Provide information to all employees on safe
    working practices.
  • Recommend changes to present equipment to improve
    health and safety standards.
  • Develop new or revise existing rules to comply
    with current standards.

56
  • 4.1.2 Task Groups
  • Within a health and safety committee, several
    task groups may be formed. Each task group and
    their responsibilities are described as follows
    2
  • Safety Activities To ensure the effectiveness of
    the OHS program in reducing injuries and
    illness, and to diffuse information pertaining to
    OHS matters.
  • Rules Procedures Prepare, maintain and review
    new or existing general safety rules and
    procedures, and to ensure that rules are being
    followed.
  • Inspection Audit Identify unsafe work area
    conditions and practices, and to increase safety
    awareness and participation.
  • Fire Emergency Develop effective management
    programs to protect people, property and
    environment in emergencies.
  • Education Training Manage, coordinate and
    review safety training programs.

57
  •  Health Environment Recommend measures to
    protect people, property and environment from
    hazardous substances, and to keep and eye on
    employees health and overall wellness.
  •  Accident Investigation Determine cause of
    accidents and to prevent recurrence to eliminate
    and minimize hazards.
  •  Housekeeping Improve employee morale, quality,
    productivity and safety and health by maintaining
    proper workplace housekeeping and orderliness.

58
  • 4.2 Importance of the OHS Policy
  • It shall be defined in respect of the health,
    safety and welfare obligation to all employees.
  • In order to fulfill this OHS policy, plan(s)
    shall be formulated and capabilities and support
    mechanism shall be developed.

59
  • 4.3 Planning and Implementation 
  • The management shall take note to define,
    prioritize and quantify the organizations
    objectives clearly.
  • Proper plans for any programs shall be developed
    in detail, and the availability of financial and
    other resources must be looked into before
    confirming any decisions.
  • plans and policies that have been implemented
    shall be measured and reviewed all the time.
  • organizations have to be pro- active in order to
    encourage continual improvement.
  • An important part of OHS planning is the
    management of change.
  • Internal standards policies, procedures and safe
    systems of work shall be available.

60
Figure 4.1 A Procedure for OHS Planning and
Implementing
61
  • 4.3.1 Risk Assessment
  • Risk assessment shall be used when occupational
    hazards in a workplace appear to pose a
    significant threat and it is uncertain whether
    planned controls are adequate in practice.
  • Organizations shall carry out risk assessment as
    part of their efforts for continual improvement.
  •  The intent of risk assessments is to control
    risks before harm could occur.
  • A risk assessment based on a participative
    approach also provides an opportunity for the
    management and the work force to agree on the
    organizations procedures with shared perceptions
    of hazards and risks.
  • Several risk analysis of hazards have been
    developed for use such as the fault- tree
    analysis or the criticality analysis.  

62
  • 4.3.2 Emergency Preparedness and Response 
  • The basic steps in developing an effective
    program are
  • identifying the need for procedures
  • implementing written procedures,
  • conducting periodic tests,
  • continual improvement through review and
    revision.

63
  • 4.4 Importance of Documentation and Record
    Keeping
  • documentation shall not be voluminous as it
    lowers effectiveness and efficiency.
  • Accurate and complete documented records are
    necessary because
  • the law calls for it
  • they can be made accessible at the point of use.
  • determining the validity of claims in a lawsuit
  • objective evidence to show that activities
    related to the requirements of an OHS system
    have been satisfactorily performed.
  • reference purposes in the future.  

64
  • The following is a list of records that ought to
    be kept by an organization
  • Occupational injuries and illnesses.
  • Fire Protection
  • Materials Handling/ Storage
  • Machinery and Machine Guarding
  • Welding, Cutting, Brazing Equipment
  • Training
  • Medical Records.
  • Not all injuries and illnesses have to be
    recorded. They shall be classified according to
    work-related or non-work related first before it
    can be decided whether it is necessary to note
    the details of these job injuries and
    occupational illnesses. 

65
Figure 4.2 Recording of Occupational Injuries
and Illnesses
66
  • 4.5 OHS Management System Audits
    Verification
  • In order to ensure effective implementation,
    organization shall conduct periodically OHS
    management system audits and verification of its
    on-site implementation.
  • 4.5.1 Inspections
  • There are in general four types of inspection
    that may be conducted.
  • Periodic Conducted at regular scheduled
    intervals.
  • Intermittent Unannounced or surprise
    inspections.
  • Continuous Part of a day-to-day operation.
  • Special One-off inspections conducted for
    especially hazardous situations.
  • The area being inspected will thus determine the
    kind of inspection to be performed. Proper
    documentation of data is to be done to ensure
    that employees are kept on their toes.

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  • 4.5.2 Audits
  • Audits are commonly conducted at the
    organizations by corporate personnel, external
    professional consultants, and selected local
    authorities, professional or ad-hoc associations.
  • Basically, the organization has to perform a
    cost-benefit analysis and identify if the audit
    is an on-going process or on an ad-hoc basis,
    among others.
  • 4.6 Periodic Status Review
  • The management shall demonstrate commitment to
    the effective implementation of the OHS
    management system and shall undertake periodic
    status review to ensure maintenance and
    suitability of the OHS policy as well as to
    ensure continual improvement.

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CHAPTER 5 HAZARD AND RISK ASSESSMENT
  • 5.1 Introduction to Risk Assessment
  • Risk assessment is essentially
  • an integration of the findings provided by a
    hazard assessment and an exposure assessment
  • determines the adequacy of controls with respect
    to risks.
  • The elements of a risk assessment can be defined
    by using a multi- or n- dimensional matrix.
  • A matrix example of a risk assessment done on a
    construction sector is presented in Table 5.1.
  • Severity and Probability of Occurrence
    (Frequency) of each hazard is rated.  

69
Figure 5.1 Risk Assessment Procedures
70
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71
Table 5.1 An Example of a Risk Assessment Matrix
72
  • 5.2 Differences between Hazards and Risks
  • The word hazard always denotes a possibility or
    potential. Risk is however, defined as the
    combination of the likelihood and consequences of
    a specified hazardous event occurring.
  • The difference between hazard and risk lies in
    that a hazard is a possible (or potential) harm
    or injury, whereas a risk is the probability that
    a person will actually experience a specific
    hazard.
  • 5.2.1 Hazard Risk Reduction Strategies
  • Product reformulation or chemical substitutions
    are two ways of replacing a hazardous chemical
    component in a product with a less hazardous or
    totally harmless material.
  • In order to reduce the risks associated with a
    hazard that cannot be removed or reduced, it is
    necessary to reduce exposure.

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  • This is possible by implementing three exposure
    control approaches in the following order
  • Management Control through proper supervision of
    assignments, procedures, etc
  • Engineering Control
  • Personal protective clothing and equipment
  • 5.3 Hazards Identification
  • 5.3.1 Agents of Hazards
  • Physical, chemical and biological agents can pose
    human health and safety hazards.
  • Heat, noise and vibration are some common
    physical agents
  • chemical agents are made up of naturally
    occurring and human made inorganic and organic
    chemicals.
  • Biological agents include viruses and bacteria.
  • They can be identified and described without
    reference to the human subjected to the
    associated hazardi.
  •  

74
A.
Physical Agents
Acoutistic Radiation
Sonic and ultrasonic sound, including continuous
and intermittent (impact) noise
Temperature
Heat and cold stress
Magnetic Radiation
Magnetic flux densities, including those having
influence on implanted medical devices and
ferromagnetic tools
Visible light, lasers, radio frequency/ microwave
radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and x-rays

Electromagnetic Radiation
Radionuclides and radiation (alpha, beta and
gamma) associated with unstable atomic nuclei or
nuclear reactions
Radioactivity
Stress associated with mechanical tensions in
musculo-skeletal system
Ergonomic Stress
Mechanical impact that exerts physical force on
body
Physical Impact
Figure 5.2 Examples of Hazardous Agents in the
Workplacei (Page 1 of 3)
75
Chemical Agents
Agents Presenting Physical Risk
Asphyxiant
Vapors displace air and thereby cause suffocation
Combustible
Burns when subjected to a temperature greater
than 100oF and below 200oF
Corrosive
Chemically burns living tissue on contact
Suddenly releases pressure, gas and heat when
ignited
Explosive
Flammable
Burns when subjected to a temperature less than
100oF

A non-corrosive material that causes itching,
soreness or inflammation of exposed skin, eyes or
mucous membranes
Irritant
Pyrophoric
Ignites spontaneously in air at temperature of
130oF or lower
Organic Peroxide
Spontaneously explodes due to the formation of
unstable peroxides
Promotes or initiates the burning of combustible
or flammable material
Oxidizer
Water Reactive
Reacts with water to form a flammable or toxic gas
Unstable/Reactive
Spontaneously explodes with production of
pressure, gas, heat and possibly toxic fumes
Figure 5.2 Examples of Hazardous Agents in the
Workplacei (Page 2 of 3)
76
B.
Chemical Agents
Agents Presenting Health Risk
Causes cancer
Carcinogen
Causes changes in genetic information that is
inherited from generation to generation
Mutagen
Causes life-threatening damage to tissues or
internal organs in very small amounts (e.g.
several teaspoons or less)
Poison
Sensitizer
Causes allergic reactions after repeated
exposures, with possibly severe or even
life-threatening consequences

Teratogen
Causes malfunction of the developing fetus
Toxic
Causes life-threatening damage to tissues or
internal organs, but in amounts greater than a
poison
Biological Agents
Bloodborne Pathogens
Disease causing organisms that may be transmitted
through blood and other blood-related bodily
fluids of infected persons
Other pathogens
Infectious diseases that may be transmitted by
means other than bodily fluids of infected
persons (e.g. water, air, food)
Figure 5.2 Examples of Hazardous Agents in the
Workplacei (Page 3 of 3)
77
  • 5.3.2 Classifications of Hazards
  • There are two types of hazards
  • one that is described in terms of the time
    interval between exposure to the hazard
  • another that is defined based on the
    manifestation of consequent harm or injury.

Table 5.2 Classification of Hazard Types
78
  • 5.4 Quantifying Exposure
  • As the essential link between hazard (a
    possibility) and risk (a probability), exposure
    must be examined in detail, with specific
    attention given to the following aspectsi
  • Quantitative measure (e.g. concentration of
    chemical inhaled) which includes the measures of
    the amount or the nature of the hazardous agent,
    as well as the measures of the duration and
    frequency of exposure.
  • Pathways by which the hazard comes into contact
    with human tissue (e.g. inhalation).
  • Mechanism(s) by which a hazardous agent is
    transformed or propagated from its source to a
    human. Often referred to as environmental
    transport or fate.
  • Mechanism(s) by which a hazardous agent might be
    transformed during its transport or propagation.
  • Individual humans or populations that might come
    into contact with the hazard.

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  • As a more holistic, integrated approach to
    workplace health and safety becomes established,
    it can be expected that such quantification of
    community exposures to the hazards of individual
    worksites will become more common.
  • Any competent exposure analysis of industrial
    hazards includes a detailed description of the
    various specific pathways or routes by which a
    hazardous agent comes into contact with living
    tissue.
  • Generic categories of environmental dynamics
    include
  • Introduction of materials and energies into
    major environmental compartments
  • Transformation of materials and energies within
    environmental compartments
  • Translocation of materials and energies from
    compartment to compartment
  • Concentration of materials and energies
    within compartments
  • Dissipation of materials and energies within
    compartments
  • Elimination of materials and energies within
    compartments. 

80

Figure 5.3 Generic Environmental Processes that
influence the dynamic flows and transformation of
materials and energies in environmental
compartmentsi
81
  • 5.5 Hazards Analysis
  • Checklists are usually drawn up to help in
    identifying hazards and hazardous operation
    relationships systematically.
  • The hazard matrix is made up of rows and columns
  • rows are made up of different items or function
    hazards.
  • columns store progressive information about
    hazardous events, causes, effects and severities,
    probability of occurrence, controls,
    verifications of controls, and remarks.

82

Table 5.3 An Example PHA Matrix Checklist Format
Using A Hot Water Heateri
83
  • 5.5.1 Severity Rating
  • Severity of hazardous effects is also known as
    hazard level or criticality category.
  • It is a rating indicating the seriousness of an
    effect of a hazard on a worker or employee, and
    it can be defined into different categories with
    different values.
  • There is a direct correlation between effect and
    severity, therefore severity is ranked according
    to the hazard effect.
  • Severity rating shall be ranked based on the
    worst effects of a hazard mode.

84

Table 5.4 Severity of the Hazardous Effecti
85
  • 5.5.2 Probability of Occurrence
  • Occurrence is the ranking of likelihood that a
    specific cause will occur with existing controls.
  • The probability of occurrence, like severity, can
    be defined into different categories with
    different values and has to be calculated for
    every cause of the hazards.

Table 5.5 Probability of Occurrence of the
Hazardous Effects
86
  • 5.5.3 Risk Ratings
  • Severity and Probability factors are used to
    represent risk ratings
  • The risks are then rated according to different
    levels of trivial, tolerable, moderate,
    substantial and intolerable.
  • Risk ratings, such as risk index categories or
    risk assessment categories are used to guide
    management actions.

Table 5.6 Risk Rating Table
87
Table 5.7 Table showing the Interpretation of
Risks
88
  • 5.6 Logic Tree Analysis

OR

Figure 5.4 Example of a Fault Treei
89
  • Fault trees are usually drawn with an undesired
    event at the time and ways that the event could
    happen beneath, connected to the upper event by
    basically two types of logic gates- or and
    and.
  • The or gate bears the meaning that any of the
    contributing events would be sufficient to cause
    the upper event,
  • the and gate means all events must be present
    for the upper event to occur.
  • At the same time, the trees are limited by
    using diamonds to represent a termination.
  • Double diamonds, one within one another, are used
    to mark insufficient information, to remind
    analysts to review those portions later on.
  • Caution must be given to maintain the correct
    logic within the tree. Without correct logic, the
    tree forms incorrect loops of circular logic and
    fails to portray reality.

90
  • 5.7 Iteration and Expanded Matrix Analyses
  • PHAs can and ought to be repeated with updated
    design information several times.
  • This is an example of a common iterative system
    process of going back and updating or correcting
    an analysis based upon newer informationi.
  • It explains the need to review fault trees.
  • By changing matrix headings through asking
    different questions or more detailed questions,
    other types of matrices similar to the PHA are
    produced such as, System Hazard Analysis (SHA)
    or the Operating and Support Hazard Analysis
    (OSHA).

91
CHAPTER 6 EMERGENCY RESPONSE AND PREPAREDNESS
  • 6.1 Importance of Emergency Contingency
    Plans
  • The existence of a sound emergency and disaster
    response plan in an organization often makes the
    difference between life and death.
  • all efforts in an occupational health and safety
    program would come to nothing if the organization
    is incapable or unprepared if ever an emergency
    or disaster were to arise. 
  • The worst possible outcome of such a situation
    would probably include a large number of deaths,
    the total annihilation of a factory putting it
    completely out of operation, and the cost of the
    damage to the company amounting to millions of
    dollars.
  • In essence, emergency pre-planning measures can
    keep an event from becoming a disaster in the
    first place.

92
  • 6.2 Types of Emergencies and Disasters
  • A disaster may be defined as a great, sudden
    misfortune resulting in loss of life, serious
    injury, or property damagei.

Figure 6.1 Types of Emergencies and Disasters
93
  • 6.2.1 Fire
  • The quick action of the brigade is essential in
    order to minimize injury and damage, as well as
    to evacuate affected employees.
  • 6.2.2 Explosion
  • It is highly dangerous as it occurs suddenly
    without warning, and can inflict severe injuries
    and damage.
  • 6.2.3 Tornado/ Weather Situations
  • Employees should be instructed on how to
    evacuate their workplaces safely without leaving
    dangerous tasks unattended.
  • 6.2.4 Sabotage and Terrorism/ Bomb Threats
  • Internal security measures have to be taken for
    advanced detection and early notification of
    local police and help forces.
  •  6.2.5 Strikes/ Violence
  • Strikes, especially labour strikes, will affect
    operations badly.Thus, the company should be on
    the alert for any strikes.
  •  
  •  

94
  • 6.2.6 Accidents
  • Accident prevention and investigation procedures
    should be present in the event of an accident.
  • 6.2.7 Chemical Spill/ Vapor Release
  • When a chemical spill or vapor release arise,
    appropriate actions and personnel should be
    engaged for proper disposal of the hazardous
    materials.
  • 6.2.8 Radiation
  • Even small amounts of radioactive material pose a
    significant threat to health. Therefore,
    facilities for showers and eyewash should be
    present and easily accessible.
  • 6.2.9 Energy Emergencies
  • Energy emergencies are usually caused by fuel
    shortages.

95
  • 6.3 What is Emergency Contingency
    Planning
  • An effective emergency plan will take into
    account the following factors
  • Plans and procedures Safest and most effective
    procedures that people affected by the emergency
    should follow.
  • Training, testing and practice Sufficient
    testing to ascertain the emergency plans
    effectiveness should be carried out, perhaps in
    conjunction with training and drills.
  • Communications equipment and personnel To
    maintain open lines of communication, there
    should be adequate communication equipment and
    personnel assigned to such tasks.
  • Equipment Sufficient equipment to deal with
    emergencies should be readily available. 
  • Response Immediate response to emergency from
    the authorities is of utmost importance.
  •  

96
Figure 6.2 Emergency Response Relationships
97
  • 6.4 Elements of Emergency Plan Response
  • Most of the elements stated below are in
    compliance to the Chemical Process Safety
    Regulations 29 CFR 1910.39 (Employee Emergency
    Plans).
  • 6.4.1 Policy
  • The policy defines the attitude of the company
    towards emergency planning.
  • 6.4.2 Authority
  • A chain of command should be established to
    minimize confusion so that employees will have no
    doubt who has the authority for making
    decisionsi.  
  • 6.4.3 Emergency Escape Procedures and Routes
  • Emergency escape procedures and routes should be
    posted in each work area. 
  • 6.4.4 Personnel who remain to operate critical
    operations

98
  • 6.4.5 Employee Accountability Procedures After
    Evacuation
  • Each supervisor should be responsible for his or
    her assigned employees, to ensure that the
    identities and status of well being of all the
    employees are established.
  • 6.4.6 Control Center
  • The function of the control center is to have a
    place where all instructions are given out and
    information is exchanged in case of an emergency.
     
  • 6.4.7 Rescue and Medical Duties
  • Emergency teams should be trained in the various
    types of possible emergencies and actions to be
    performed such as first- aid and transportation.
  • 6.4.8 Transportation
  • Injured people must be evacuated safely out of
    dangerous areas and the critically ill must be
    sent to hospital as soon as possible.  
  • 6.4.9 Communications
  • A method of communications is required to alert
    employees of the evacuation.  
  •  

99
  • 6.4.10 Training/ Practice
  • Training in the following areas will be useful 
  • Use of various types of fire extinguishers.
  • First- aid, including Cardio Pulmonary
    Resuscitation
  • Shut- down procedures
  • Evacuation procedures
  • Chemical spill control procedures
  • Use of self- contained breathing apparatus
  • Search and emergency rescue
    proceduresii 
  • 6.4.11 Personal Protection and Rescue Equipment
  • Effective personal protective equipment should be
    stored in a place that is easily reached,
    checked, serviced and cleaned regularly.  
  • 6.4.12 Lighting
  • Back up portable generators are indispensable in
    providing necessary lighting to carry out
    necessary rescue operations.
  • 6.4.13 Security
  • An off-limits area must be established by
    cordoning the area with ropes and signs.

100
  • 6.5 Developing an Emergency Response Plan
  • The development of a practical and effective
    emergency response program is essentially a
    normative process.

Figure 6.3 Three Phases for Devising Emergency
Response Policies and Proceduresi
101
  • 6.5.1 Risk Assessments Phase
  • Factors that are necessary in this phase are the
    sources and types of hazards, the degree of
    exposure and the persons exposed.
  • Techniques available to the planner include
    hazard analysis, failure modes and effects
    analysis, and fault and event tree analysis.  
  • 6.5.2 Safety Judgement Phase
  • This phase seeks to determine the level of
    protection for each population under risk, while
    keeping in mind their social and cultural values
    and current regulatory standards.
  • 6.5.3 Making-Safe Strategy Phase
  • As shown in Figure 6.4, policies and procedures
    should address three basic types of emergency
    response activities
  • Preparation Activities Undertaken immediately
    upon discovery of a potential or actual
    emergency, prior to the initiation of any
    response.
  • Response Activities Include all efforts to
    control the emergency and provide assistance to
    affected persons.
  • Follow-up Activities Focus on post emergency
    actions to bring the company back to a state of
    emergency readiness, including revisions to
    emergency plans based on experience of past
    emergencies.

102

Figure 6.4 Basic Emergency Response Operationsi
103
  • 6.6 First Aid in Emergency Planning
  • Safety programs must place proper emphasis on
    life- saving actions.  
  • General approach in every emergency situation is
    explained below. 
  • 1.     Survey the scene.
  • Proper precautions have to be taken,
    especially in toxic atmospheres. Quick and
    decisive actions have to be made sometimes, such
    as whether to move the casualty or wait for
    proper medical personnel to arrive, seeking help
    from people around.
  • 2.     Do a primary survey of the victim.
  • The victims breathing rate, heart rate and
    level of consciousness are noted here.
  • 3.     Phone Emergency Medical Services for help.
  • . The victim should always be brought to the
    hospital for a proper examinationbefore declaring
    his state of health.  
  • 4.     Do a secondary survey of the victim.
  • Vital conditions such the victims breathing,
    heart rate, consciousness and any other injuries
    have to be monitored frequently.

104
CHAPTER 7 OHS Management System Assessment
  • 7.1 Introduction
  • Auditing is a procedure for periodic, systematic,
    documented, and objective evaluation of
    operations and practices in meeting safety,
    health, and environmental requirementsi.
  • It is also a quality assurance tool that can
    verify whether management and technical practices
    exist, function properly, and are adequate to
    meet the organizations goalsii.
  • An organization has to plan for annual internal
    and external safety audits to be conducted.
  • The safety audit ought to cover the entire
    operatio
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