History and branches of Anatomy

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History and branches of Anatomy

• Anatome

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Anatomy (Greek anatome, dissection)

• a subfield of biology, the study of the structure
  of living things.
• 3 main areas of anatomy cytology studies the
  structure of cell histology examines the
  structure of tissues and gross anatomy deals
  with organs and organ groupings called systems.

• Comparative anatomy strives to identify general
  structural patterns in families of plants and
  animals, provided the basis for the
  classification of species.
• Human anatomy is a crucial element of the modern
  medical curriculum.
• The proper understanding of structure implies a
  knowledge of function, hence inseparable to
  Physiology.

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The birth of biology 5th - 4th century BC

• The first man to make a significant contribution
  in biology is Alcmaeon, living in Crotona in the
  5th century.  Alcmaeon is the first scientist
  known to have practised dissection in his
  researches.
• His aim is not anatomical, for his interest lies
  in trying to trying to find the whereabouts of
  human intelligence.

• The subsequent Greek theory, subscribed to even
  by Aristotle, is that the heart is the seat of
  intelligence.
• Alcmaeon reasons that since a blow to the head
  can affect the mind, in concussion, this must be
  where reason lies.
• In dissecting corpses to pursue this idea, he
  observes passages linking the brain with the eyes
  (the optic nerves) and the back of the mouth with
  the ears (Eustachian tubes).

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Human vivisection c.300 BC

• Early in the 3rd century BC two surgeons in
  Alexandria, Herophilus and Erasistratus, make the
  first scientific studies designed to discover the
  workings of human anatomy.
• Basis of science in the modern times.

• (they acquire much of their information from
  vivisection of convicted criminals).

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The influential errors of Galen 2nd century AD

• Galen - The newly appointed chief physician to
  the gladiators in Pergamum, in AD 158
• The appointment gives him the opportunity to
  study wounds of all kinds.
• But it is Galen's dissection of apes and pigs
  which give him the detailed information for his
  medical tracts on the organs of the body. Nearly
  100 of these tracts survive.

• Galen is able to demonstrate that living arteries
  contain blood.
• His error the blood goes back and forth from
  the heart in an ebb-and-flow motion.
• Through his experiments Galen is able to overturn
  many long-held beliefs that the arteries contain
  air - carrying it to all parts of the body from
  the heart and the lungs (based originally on the
  arteries of dead animals, which appear to be
  empty).

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Leonardo's anatomical drawings AD 1489-1515

• Leonardo da Vinci made a series of anatomical
  drawings.
• Over the next twenty-five years he dissects about
  thirty human corpses, many of them at a mortuary
  in Rome.

• His drawings, amounting to some 750, include
  studies of bone structures, muscles, internal
  organs, the brain and even the position of the
  foetus in the womb.
• His studies of the heart suggest that he was on
  the verge of discovering the concept of the
  circulation of the blood.

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Vesalius and the science of anatomy AD 1533-1543

• Vesalius gives a public demonstration of the
  inaccuracies of Galen's anatomical theories,
  which are still the orthodoxy of the medical
  profession.
• Vesalius is able to show that in many cases
  Galen's observations are indeed correct for the
  ape, but bear little relation to the man.

• He ensured accurate distribution of an image in
  printed form - the art of the woodcut.
• His studies inaugurate the modern science of
  anatomy.  
• in 1543 - De humani corporis fabrica (The
  Structure of the Human Body).

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Harvey and the circulation of the blood AD 1628

• William Harvey Wrote Exercitatio anatomica de
  motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus ('The
  Anatomical Function of the Movement of the Heart
  and the Blood in Animals').
• Blood, he shows, does not drift in the body in
  any sort of random ebb and flow.
• Instead it is pumped endlessly round a very
  precise circuit.

• By a long series of dissections (from dogs and
  pigs down to slugs and oysters), and by a process
  of logical argument
• But there are two missing ingredients. His theory
  implies that there must be a network of tiny
  blood vessels bringing the blood from the
  arterial system to the venous system and
  completing the circuit

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Malpighi and the microscope AD 1661

• Malpighi is the first scientist to observe the
  capillaries, the tiny blood vessels in which
  blood circulates through flesh.
• (frog's lung) In the enlarged image of the blood
  is all contained within  

• This strengthened the missing link in Harvey's
  circulation of the blood has been found.

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Leeuwenhoek and the microscope AD 1674-1683

• he uses a simple microscope with a single lens -
  in effect a tiny and extremely powerful
  magnifying glass.
• he is the first scientist to give an accurate
  description of red blood corpuscles.
• he observes and depicts spermatozoa in the semen
  of a dog.
• he provides a drawing of animalculae (or
  bacteria) seen in saliva and dental plaque.  
  

• the first to wander with such enlarged vision
  among the minutiae of the animal kingdom.
• His account of the common flea follows its
  development from egg to the practical perfection
  of its adult anatomy. His researches demonstrate
  for the first time that the tiniest living things
  have a life cycle and generative systems like any
  larger creature

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Microscopic anatomy 17th - 20th century AD

•  

• Félix Dujardin identifies a viscous translucent
  substance as being common to all forms of life
  it is later given the name protoplasm.
• Robert Brown discovers in plants the nucleus at
  the centre of every cell.

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Swann give the
first coherent account of cell formation as the
building process of all life
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Anatomy - Anatomical Nomenclature

• What are these?
• 4D/4E just an add on to your studies... It
  might help in the future...

• Research.

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Anatomy - Anatomical Nomenclature

• standard anatomical position - When the human
  body is in the standard anatomical position it is
  upright, erect on two legs, facing frontward,
  with the arms at the sides each rotated so that
  the palms of the hands turn forward.

• In the standard anatomical position, superior
  means toward the head or the cranial end of the
  body.
• The term inferior means toward the feet or the
  caudal end of the body.
• The frontal surface of the body is the anterior
  or ventral surface of the body. Accordingly, the
  terms "anteriorly" and "ventrally" specify a
  position closer toor towardthe frontal surface
  of the body. The back surface of the body is the
  posterior or dorsal surface and the terms
  "posteriorly" and "dorsally" specify a position
  closer toor towardthe posterior surface of the
  body.

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• The sagittal suture unties the parietal bones of
  the skull along the midline of the body. The
  suture is used as an anatomical landmark in
  anatomical nomenclature to establish what are
  termed sagittal planes of the body. The primary
  sagittal plane is the sagittal plane that runs
  through the length of the sagittal suture. Planes
  that are parallel to the sagittal plane, but that
  are offset from the midsagittal plane are termed
  parasagittal planes. Sagittal planes run
  anteriorly and posteriorly, are always at right
  angles to the coronal planes. The medial plane or
  midsagittal plane divides the body vertically
  into superficially symmetrical right and left
  halves.
• The medial plane also establishes a centerline
  axis for the body. The terms medial and lateral
  relate positions relative to the medial axis. If
  a structure is medial to another structure, the
  medial structure is closer to the medial or
  center axis. If a structure is lateral to another
  structure, the lateral structure is farther way
  from the medial axis. For example, the lungs are
  lateral to the heart.

• The terms superficial and deep relate to the
  distance from the exterior surface of the body.
  Cavities such as the thoracic cavity have
  internal and external regions that correspond to
  deep and superficial relationships in the
  midsagittal plane.
• The bones of the skull are fused by sutures that
  form important anatomical landmarks. Sutures are
  joints that run jaggedly along the interface
  between the bones. At birth, the sutures are
  soft, broad, and cartilaginous. The sutures
  eventually fuse and become rigid and ossified
  near the end of puberty or early in adulthood.

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• The term upper limbs or upper extremities refers
  to the arms. The term lower limbs or lower
  extremities refers to the legs.
• The proximal end of an extremity is at the
  junction of the extremity (i.e., arm or leg) with
  the trunk of the body. The distal end of an
  extremity is the point on the extremity farthest
  away from the trunk (e.g., fingers and toes).
  Accordingly, if a structure is proximate to
  another structure it is closer to the trunk
  (e.g., the elbow is proximate to the wrist). If a
  structure is distal to another, it is farther
  from the trunk (e.g., the fingers are distal to
  the wrist).
• Structures may also be described as being medial
  or lateral to the midline axis of each extremity.
  Within the upper limbs, the terms radial and
  ulnar may be used synonymous with lateral and
  medial. In the lower extremities, the terms
  fibular and tibial may be used as synonyms for
  lateral and medial.

• The coronal suture unites the frontal bone with
  the parietal bones. In anatomical nomenclature,
  the primary coronal plane designates the plane
  that runs through the length of the coronal
  suture. The primary coronal plane is also termed
  the frontal plane because it divides the body
  into frontal and back halves.
• Planes that divide the body into superior and
  inferior portions, and that are at right angles
  to both the sagittal and coronal planes are
  termed transverse planes. Anatomical planes that
  are not parallel to sagittal, coronal, or
  transverse planes are termed oblique planes.
• The body is also divided into several regional
  areas. The most superior area is the cephalic
  region that includes the head. The thoracic
  region is commonly known as the chest region.
  Although the celiac region more specifically
  refers to the center of the abdominal region,
  celiac is sometimes used to designate a wider
  area of abdominal structures. At the inferior end
  of the abdominal region lies the pelvic region or
  pelvis. The posterior or dorsal side of the body
  has its own special regions, named for the
  underlying vertebrae. From superior to inferior
  along the midline of the dorsal surface lie the
  cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral regions.
  The buttocks is the most prominent feature of the
  gluteal region.

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• The term flexion means movement toward the flexor
  or anterior surface. In contrast, extension may
  be generally regarded as movement toward the
  extensor or posterior surface. Flexion occurs
  when the arm brings the hand from the anatomical
  position toward the shoulder (a curl) or when the
  arm is raised over the head from the anatomical
  position. Extension returns the upper arm and or
  lower to the anatomical position. Because of the
  embryological rotation of the lower limbs that
  rotates the primitive dorsal side to the adult
  form ventral side, flexion occurs as the thigh is
  raised anteriorly and superiorly toward the
  anterior portion of the pelvis. Extension occurs
  when the thigh is returned to anatomical
  position. Specifically, due to the embryological
  rotation, flexion of the lower leg occurs as the
  foot is raised toward the back of the thigh and
  extension of the lower leg occurs with the
  kicking motion that returns the lower leg to
  anatomical position.
• The term palmar surface (palm side) is applied to
  the flexion side of the hand. The term plantar
  surface is applied to the bottom sole of the
  foot. From the anatomical position, extension
  occurs when the toes are curled back and the foot
  arches upward and flexion occurs as the foot is
  returned to anatomical position.
• Rolling motions of the foot are described as
  inversion (rolling with the big toe initially
  lifting upward) and eversion (rolling with the
  big toe initially moving downward).

• Rotations of the extremities may de described as
  medial rotations (toward the midline) or lateral
  rotations (away from the midline).
• Many structural relationships are described by
  combined anatomical terms (e.g. the eyes are
  anterio-medial to the ears).
• There are also terms of movement that are
  standardized by anatomical nomenclature. Starting
  from the anatomical position, abduction indicates
  the movement of an arm or leg away from the
  midline or midsagittal plane. Adduction indicates
  movement of an extremity toward the midline.
• The opening of the hands into the anatomical
  position is supination of the hands. Rotation so
  the dorsal side of the hands face forward is
  termed pronation.

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Human anatomy in a nutshell

• Human anatomy divides the body into the following
  distinct functional systems cutaneous, muscular,
  skeletal, circulatory, nervous, digestive,
  urinary, endocrine, respiratory, and
  reproductive. This division helps the student
  understand the organs, their relationships, and
  the relations of individual organs to the body as
  a whole.
• The cutaneous system consists of the
  integumentthe covering of the body, including
  the skin, hair, and nails. The skin is the
  largest organ in the body, and its most important
  function is to act as a barrier between the body
  and the outside world. The skin's minute openings
  (pores) also provide an outlet for sweat, which
  regulates the body temperature. Melanin, a dark
  pigment found in the skin, provides protection
  from sunburn. The skin also contains
  oil-producing cells.
• The muscles of the muscular system enable the
  body to move and provide power to the hands and
  fingers. There are two basic types of muscles.
  Voluntary (skeletal) muscles enable movements
  under conscious direction (e.g., to walk, move an
  arm, or smile). Involuntary (smooth) muscles are
  not consciously controlled, and operate
  independent of conscious direction. For example,
  they play an important role in digestion. The
  third type of muscle, cardiac muscle is
  involuntary, but also is striated, as in skeletal
  muscles. Because cardiac muscle is
  self-contractile it allows the heart to pumps
  blood throughout the body, without pause, from
  early in embryogenesis to death.
• The skeletal system, or the skeleton, is the
  general supportive structure of the body. In
  addition, the skeletal system is the site of many
  important and complex physiological and
  immunological processes. The skeletal frame
  provides the support that muscles need in order
  to function. Of the 206 bones in the human body,
  the largest is the femur, or thigh bone. The
  smallest are the tiny ear ossicles, three in each
  ear, named the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus),
  and stirrup (stapes). Often included in the
  skeletal system are the ligaments, which connect
  bone to bone the joints, which allow the
  connected bones to move and the tendons, which
  connect muscle to bone.

• The circulatory system comprises the heart,
  arteries, veins, capillaries, blood and
  blood-forming organs, and the lymphatic
  sub-system. The four chambers of the heart allow
  the heart to act as a dual pump to propel blood
  to the lungs for oxygenation (pulmonary system)
  and to pump blood throughout the body (systemic
  circulation). From the heart, the blood
  circulates through arteries. The blood is
  distributed through smaller and smaller tubes
  until it passes into the microscopic capillaries
  which bathe every cell. The veins collect the
  "used" blood from the capillaries and return it
  to the heart.
• The nervous system consists of the brain, the
  spinal cord, and the sensory organs that provide
  information to them. For example, our eyes, ears,
  nose, tongue, and skin receive stimuli and send
  signals that travel both electrically and
  chemically to the brain. The brain is an
  intricate system of complicated neurons (nerve
  cells) that allow us to process sensory
  information, visceral signals (e.g. regulating
  breathing, body temperature, etc.), and perform
  cognitive thought.
• The digestive system is essentially a long tube
  extending from the mouth to the anus. Food
  entering the mouth is conducted through the
  stomach, small intestine, and large intestine,
  where accessory organs contribute digestive
  juices to break down the food, extracting the
  molecules that can be used to nourish the body.
  The unusable parts of the ingested food are
  expelled through the anus as fecal matter. The
  salivary glands (in the mouth), the liver, and
  the pancreas are the primary digestive glands.
• The urinary system consists of the kidneys, the
  bladder, and the connecting tubules. The kidneys
  filter water and waste products from the blood
  and pass them into the bladder. At intervals, the
  bladder is emptied through the urinary tract,
  ridding the body of unneeded waste.
• The endocrine system consists of ductless
  (endocrine) glands that produce hormones that
  regulate various bodily functions. The pancreas
  secretes insulin to regulate sugar metabolism,
  for example. The pituitary gland in the brain is
  the principal or "master" gland that regulates
  many other glands and endocrine functions.
• The respiratory system includes the lungs, the
  diaphragm, and the tubes that connect them to the
  outside atmosphere. Respiration is the process
  whereby an organism absorbs oxygen from the air
  and returns carbon dioxide. The diaphragm is the
  muscle that enables the lungs to work.
• Finally, the reproductive system enables sperm
  and egg to unite and the egg to remain in the
  uterus or womb to develop into a functional
  human.