Main References:

1

• Main References
• Braund, David. Augustus to Nero a Sourcebook on
  Roman History, 31 B.C. -- A.D. 68. London Croom
  Helm, 1985.
• Buckland, W.W. A Text-book of Roman Law from
  Augustus to Justinian. Cambridge Cambridge U.
  Press, 1963.
• Cooley, M.G.L., ed. The Age of Augustus.
  Harrow London Association of Classical Teachers,
  2003.
• Eck, Werner. The Age of Augustus. Malden, M.A.
  Blackwell, 2003.
• Galinsky, Karl, ed. The Cambridge Companion to
  the Age of Augustus. Cambridge Cambridge U.
  Press, 2005.

2

• Grant, R.M. Augustus to Constantine the Thrust
  of the Christian Movement into the Roman World.
  New York Harper Row, 1970.
• Jones, A.H.M. Augustus. London Chatto
  Windus, 1970.
• Lecky, W.E.H. History of European Morals from
  Augustus to Charlemagne. London Watts, 1946.
• Ogilvie, R.M. The Romans and Their Gods in the
  Age of Augustus. London Chatto Windus, 1969.

3

• MacMullen, Ramsay. Romanization in the Time of
  Augustus. New Haven Yale U. Press, 2000.
• Rives, J.B. Religion and Authority in Roman
  Carthage from Augustus to Constantine. Oxford
  Clarendon Press, 1995.
• Severy, Beth. Augustus and the Family at the
  Birth of the Roman Empire. New York Routledge,
  2003.
• Shotter, D.C.A. Augustus Caesar. London
  Routledge, 1991.
• Southern, Pat. Augustus. London Routledge,
  1998.
• Wells, Joseph. A Short History of Rome to the
  Death of Augustus. London Methuen, 1913.
• Wells, Peter S. The Battle that Stopped Rome
  Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of
  the Legions in Teutoburg Forest. New York W.W.
  Norton, 2003.

4

• On Ides of March (i.e., March 15), 44 B.C.,
  Brutus, Cassius, and a group of conservative
  senators assassinated Julius Caesar
• Comments on Julius Caesar controversial (both
  positive and negative) cf. Augustus, mostly
  positive
• Civil war and anarchy for about 14 years

5

• Octavian (62 B.C. -- A.D. 14 Caesars grand
  nephew) was only 18 years old in 44 B.C. the
  later Augustus, r. 27 B.C. -- A.D. 14) realistic
  and practical.
• He was a traditional politician opposite to
  Caesar perhaps learnt the lessons from Caesar,
  or simply different character, recruited
  Caesars veterans (1) summer, 43 B.C., joined
  with Cicero and drove Mark Anthony out of Italy
  (2) 42 B.C., with Mark Anthony defeated Brutus
  and Cassius (3) then, by force, elected to be
  one of the consuls at the age of 19, then turned
  around and joined with Mark Anthony and killed
  Cicero (4) by 33 B.C., civil war with Mark
  Anthony, but Octavian got the support from
  General Agrippa (5) in 31 B.C., defeated Mark
  Anthony with Egyptian Queen Cleopatra at Actium
  a sea battle, thus, symbolizing the complete
  end of Roman Republic and the civil war.

6

• On August 1, 30 B.C., Octavian entered Alexandria
  at the age of 33 (same as Alexander the Greats
  death age both young and brilliant) but
  Octavian refused to visit Alexanders Tomb in
  Alexandria, saying, True greatness lies not in
  conquest but in reconstruction.

7

• Octavian, Better a safe commander than a bold.
  (cf. Alexander the Great)
• Octavian Augustus began 2 years younger than
  Alexander, but 43 more years to live/rule and
  accomplished as peacemaker and architect of the
  Roman Empire.

8

• On January 16, 27 B.C., Octavian became Imperator
  Augustus, thus, the first Emperor of the Roman
  Empire but he preferred the title, Princep
  (which means First Citizen), thus, his reign was
  also called the Principate.
• In 12 B.C., Augustus was also the Pontifex
  Maximus
• In A.D. 14, Augustus died (age 76).

9

• Augustus must have some sterling qualities to win
  and keep the devoted loyalty of a number of
  friends General Agippa (d. 12 B.C.) was his
  faithful friend for 32 years Maecenas was his
  faithful friend for over 50 years and both left
  their fortunes to Augustus.

10

• Augustus was conservative and old-fashioned
  (dressing traditional Roman toga, and reviving
  old ceremonies) The man who does not wish to
  change the existing political order is a good
  man. (cf. Metternich, Change leads not to
  progress, not to salvation, but to perdition if
  you change anything, you will upset everything)

11

• Augustus was modest he lived, dressed, and ate
  simply and he had no palace (cf. Hadrians
  palaces and walls, etc.) but under his reign,
  the Roman Empire was in peace, stability,
  security, prosperity, and justice, thus, Pax
  Romana ( Roman Peace).

12

• Augustus was very strict to his daughter, Julia
  spinning and weaving, and Augustus married her 3
  times politically to (1) young Marcellus, then
  (2) old Agrippa and finally (3) Tiberius (a
  military genius, who became his heir and
  successor).

13

• Augustus was in good terms with the Senate (cf.
  Julius Caesar), and returned the Senate from 900
  (Julius Caesar) to 600 deleting his enemies,
  and/or had already controlled the Senate.
• The Age of Augustus there were many great poets,
  such as Virgil, Horace, etc., and historians,
  such as Tacitus, Livy, etc.

14

• Conclusion
• Augustus greatest gift was his political tact.
  He evidently had a passion for efficiency, but he
  was careful not to offend public opinion by
  violent changes, but to work as far as possible
  within established forms.

15

• Augustus was determined to rule the Empire, but
  he disguised his absolute powers in
  constitutional wrappings, and this made them
  acceptable to the upper classes, and established
  a form of government, which proved more or less
  stable for about 2 centuries (cf. Julius Casasr).

16

• The Roman Empire after Augustus (d. A.D. 14)
• Tiberius, r. 14-37 (Augustus daughter, Julias
  3rd husband, adopted son/heir)
• Despite some relatively incompetent emperors,
  such as Nero, r. 54-68 and Caligula, etc., the
  Roman system (bureaucracy) was sturdy and strong,
  thus, enduring and lasting with unprecedented
  peace and prosperity.

17

• The Five Good Emperors (for 84 years, a series of
  good emperors, the best, the wisest, and the most
  statesmanlike that the world has ever seen, set
  upon the Roman Emperorship
• Nerva (r. 96-98)
• Trajan (r. 98-117)

18

• Hadrian (r. 117-138) Birley, Anthony. Hadrian
  The Restless Emperor always inspecting his
  governors, watching his troops at their
  exercises always walking or riding but not on 4
  wheeled vehicle head without cover in German
  snow nor Egyptian sun building the Hadrian Wall
  in Northumbria, Scotland, Britain for defending
  against the Celts with double characters
  dignified playful, merciful cruel, both
  admiration and fear
• Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161)

19

• Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180) a stoic
  philosopher, a poet, and a warrior king
  Meditations and Letters of Marcus Aurelius
  (Penguin Classics)
• The empire under the rule of Marcus Aurelius was
  vigorous, especially shown in the swift actions
  and determined will in waging wars against the
  barbarians. Nevertheless, to some historians, it
  was in Marcus Aurelius time that symptoms of the
  decline and fall of the Roman Empire were
  exposed. (cf. Qing China) With the continuous
  expansion of the Roman Empire, the bureaucracy
  and the military force were enlarged, and
  expenditure increased. It was in the reign of
  Marcus Aurelius that the problem of financial
  difficulty became evident.

20

• In 180, Marcus Aurelius chose his own incompetent
  son Commodus, r. 180-192 to succeed his throne,
  starting a century of anarchy, assassination,
  military despotism, civil war, coup detat, and
  economic depression, etc.
• A man might be a general one day, emperor the
  next, and dead the third.
• The empire was especially chaotic, confusing, and
  uncertain between 235 and 285 (19 emperors in 50
  years except one, all died in battle or were
  assassinated i.e., violent age previously,
  Augustus golden age, 5 Good Emperors silver
  age now age of iron and rust).

21

• The exception the only emperor who died in peace
  deathbed was Septimus Severus, r. 193-211 man
  of strength and power, but could not understand
  the political traditions. He increased tax to
  fatten his treasuries and to appease his military
  troops. His dying words to his son was Enrich
  the soldiers and scorn the world.
  (characteristic of his reign and his times).

22

• Anarchy until Diocletian, r. 284-305, Dominus et
  Deus (Lord and God), thus, the age of Dominate
  (in English). He reformed with harsh measures,
  suppressing inflation, etc.

23

• Constantine, r. 306-337
• 312, Battle of the Milvian Bridge Edict of Milan
  (legalizing Christianity).

24

• Symptoms of decline with internal and external
  problems
• The first signs of stress 3rd century A.D.,
  externally, the Huns attacked northern and
  eastern Europe, forcing the Germans threatening
  the Roman Empire and internally, (1)
  economically such as inflation coinage not to
  be trusted Marcus Aurelius had already lowered
  the standard silver coin, Septimus Severus
  further increased the base metal almost to 50
  by 3rd century, Roman coin was a copper piece
  coated thinly with silver only, drastic drop of
  productive population according to official
  statistics, with plagues, famines, wars, and
  problems in taxation, robbers by land, pirates by
  sea no more Pax Romana (2) politically
  anarchy, then, military autocracy and (3)
  intellectually no more Marcus Aurelius.

25

• On the whole, optimism was declining, and
  pessimism was increasing.
• Christianity (legalized then, and organized)
  appealed to uneducated and educated Romans alike.