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Review for Midterm II

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The pre-birth phase of a star is called

1. Baby star
2. Pre-star
3. Starillo
4. Protostar
5. supernova

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Protostars
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Protostars pre-birth state of stars
Hydrogen to Helium fusion not yet ignited
Still enshrouded in opaque cocoons of dust gt
barely visible in the optical, but bright in the
infrared.
4
Dense pockets gas in a giant molecular cloud
which ultimately form stars, are called

1. Starlets
2. Globules
3. Open star clusters
4. Star pockets
5. protostars

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(Bok) Globules
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Compact, dense pockets of gas which may contract
to form stars.
10 1000 solar masses
Contracting to form protostars
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From Mercury to Neptune, the average density of
the planets

1. Steadily decreases
2. Steadily increases
3. Remains almost constant.
4. Increases throughout the terrestrial planets,
   then decreases.
5. Decreases throughout the terrestrial planets,
   then increases.

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Condensation in the Early Solar System
0
The Condensation Sequence
Only condensed materials could stick together to
form planets
Temperature (K) Condensate Planet (Estimated Temperature of Formation K)
1500 Metal Oxides Mercury (1400)
1300 Metallic iron and Nickel
1200 Silicates
1000 Feldspats Venus (900)
680 Troilite (FeS) Earth (600) Mars (450)
175 H2O ice Jovian pl. (175)
150 Ammonia - water ice
120 Methane water ice
65 Argon neon ice Pluto
Temperature in the protostellar cloud decreases
outward.
Lighter substances condense at lower temperatures.
Further out ? Protostellar cloud is cooler ?
lighter metals with lower melting point condensed
? change of chemical composition throughout solar
system
? Average density of planets decreases outwards!
8
Planets orbiting stars other than our sun are
scientifically called

1. Alien Worlds
2. Extragalactic planets
3. Extra-universal planets
4. Extrasolar planets
5. Jovian planets

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Extrasolar Planets
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All stars have gone through basically the same
formation process as the sun.
? Many stars should have planets!
? planets orbiting around other stars
Extrasolar planets
Extrasolar are very hard to image directly.
Detection using the wobbling technique
Look for wobbling motion of the star due to the
gravitational pull of the planet on the star.
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How did the Jovian planets grow?

1. Only by random encounters with rocky clumps in
   the protoplanetary cloud.
2. First by random encounters with rocky clumps,
   then by gravitational attraction.
3. First by gravitational attraction of gas and
   dust, then by random encounters with rock and gas
   clumps.

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The Story of Planet Building
Planets formed from the same protostellar
material as the sun.
Rocky planet material formed from clumping
together of dust grains in the protostellar cloud.
Mass of more than 15 Earth masses
Mass of less than 15 Earth masses
Planets can grow by gravitationally attracting
material from the protostellar cloud
Planets can not grow by gravitational collapse
Earthlike planets
Jovian planets (gas giants)
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What is differentiation?

1. Centrifugal forces flinging heavy metals out to
   the outer layers of a planet, while lighter
   materials remain near the core.
2. The suns gravity pulling heavier metals towards
   it, while lighter ones remain at the opposite
   side.
3. Heavier metals sinking to the cores of planets,
   while the lighter ones remain in the crust.

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The Growth of Protoplanets
0
As rocks melted, heavier elements sink to the
center ? differentiation
? Terrestrial planets have heavy-metal (iron)
cores and mantles of lighter substances
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Near the Earths center, we find

1. A core of solid iron.
2. A core of liquid iron.
3. A core of liquid silicon-based rocks.
4. A core of solid silicon-based rocks.
5. A core of pure gold.

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Earths Interior (II)
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Basic structure
Solid crust (light Si-based materials)
Solid mantle (light elements, iron-poor)
Liquid core (iron-rich)
Solid inner core (iron-rich)
Earths interior gets hotter towards the center.
Earths core is as hot as the suns surface
metals are liquid near the core.
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Earths Interior
0
Direct exploration of Earths interior (e.g.
drilling) is impossible.
Earth quakes produce seismic waves.
Earths interior can be explored through
seismology
Seismic waves are bent or bounce off transitions
between different materials or different
densities or temperatures.
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Earth quakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activity on
Earth occur predominantly near

1. large oceans.
2. the core of the Earth.
3. the centers of large continents.
4. the boundaries of tectonic plates.
5. the top of the atmosphere.

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Geological activity around the Pacific
0
Earthquakes Kobe (Japan)
Volcanism Mt. St. Helen
Volcanism Pinatubo (Philippines)
Earthquakes San Francisco
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Volcanoes related to subduction zones are found

1. Only on Earth.
2. Only on Mars.
3. Only on Venus.
4. Only on Mercury.
5. On all terrestrial planets.

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Shield Volcanoes
Volcanism on Earth (II)
0
Found above hot spots
Fluid magma chamber, from which lava erupts
repeatedly through surface layers above.
All volcanoes on Venus and Mars are shield
volcanoes
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The Alps have been formed by the collision
between

1. The North American and the South American Plate
2. The Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate
3. The Eurasian and the North American Plate
4. The Afrian and the Eurasian Plate
5. The Afrian and the Indian-Australian Plate.

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Earths Tectonic History
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History of Geological Activity
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Surface formations visible today have emerged
only very recently compared to the age of Earth.
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X-rays from space interact with the atmosphere
primerily through

1. The dissociation of ozone molecules.
2. Inducing rotations of air molecules in the
   troposphere.
3. Inducing vibrations of air molecules in the
   troposphere.
4. Ionizing atoms and molecules in the Exosphere and
   Thermosphere.
5. Not at all X-rays traverse the atmosphere nearly
   unabsorbed.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Wavelength
Frequency
High flying air planes or satellites
Need satellites to observe
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The Temperature Structure of Earths Atmosphere
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Exosphere Heated by UV and X-rays from space
Thermosphere Heated by X-rays from space
Stratosphere Heated by UV radiation from space
Top of Ozone Layer
Ozone Layer
Altitude
Troposphere Heated by greenhouse effect
Temperature
Atmosphere gets colder at larger distance from
heat sources.
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The most essential step in the greenhouse effect
is

1. The dissociation of ozone molecules by
   ultraviolet light.
2. The ionization of air molecules by X-rays.
3. The heating of air molecules by gamma-rays.
4. The absorption of infrared light by complex
   molecules in the stratosphere.
5. The absorption of optical light by complex
   molecules in the stratosphere.

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The Interactions between Light and Molecules
0
Infrared
Causes asymmetric molecules to rotate
This is the essential step of the Greenhouse
Effect!
Carbon dioxide (CO2) / Water vapor (H2O) / any
other asymmetric molecules (greenhouse gases)
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Which of the following is a greenhouse gas?

1. Hydrogen (H2)
2. Oxygen (O2)
3. Nitrogen (N2)
4. Ammonia (NH3)
5. All of the above.

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Greenhouse Gases
0

• Gases consisting of compounds of two or more
  different types of atoms
• CO2 (carbon dioxide)
• H2O (water vapor)
• CH4 (methane)
• NH3 (Ammonia)

Most common gases in Earths atmosphere (N2, O2)
do not contribute to the greenhouse effect.