Title: Life Cycle of a Frog
1Life Cycle of a Frog
- Chapter 19 Zoology
- Ms. K. Cox
- http//allaboutfrogs.org/weird/weird.html
2True Love? We will start with mating.
- When Frogs mate, the male frog tends to clasp the
female underneath in an embrace called amplexus.
He literally climbs on her back, reaches his arms
around her "waist", either just in front of the
hind legs, just behind the front legs, or even
around the head.
3True Love? We will start with mating.
- Amplexus can last several days! Usually, it
occurs in the water, though some species, like
the bufos on the right mate on land or even in
trees!(photo courtesy of Emile
Vandecasteele)While in some cases, complicated
courting behavior occurs before mating, many
species of frogs are known for attempting to mate
with anything that moves which isn't small enough
to eat!
4Spawn (egg-mass)
- While in the amplexus position, the male frog
fertilizes the eggs as they are laid. Frogs tend
to lay single eggs in masses, whereas toads
usually lay eggs in long chains. Some frogs
leave after this point, but others stick around
to watch over the little ones. Some have very
unusual ways of caring for their young.
5What do they look like?
6Egg
- Frogs and Toads tend to lay many many eggs
because there are many hazards between
fertilization and full grown frogness! Those eggs
that die tend to turn white or opaque. The lucky
ones that actually manage to hatch still start
out on a journey of many perils.
7- Example
- Some frogs, like the Coast foam-nest treefrog,
actually mate in treebranches overlooking static
ponds and streams. Their egg masses form large
cocoon-like foamy masses. The foam sometimes
cakes dry in the sun, protecting the inside
moisture. When the rain comes along, after
developement of 7 to 9 days, the foam drips down,
dropping tiny tadpoles into the river or pond
below.
8Frog Life Cycle
- 1. Amplexus
- 2. Life starts right as the central yolk splits
in two. It then divides into four, then eight,
etc.- until it looks a bit like a raspberry
inside a jello cup. - 3. Shortly after hatching, the tadpole still
feeds on the remaining yolk, which is actually in
its gut! The tadpole at this point consists of
poorly developed gills, a mouth, and a tail. It's
really fragile at this point. They usually will
stick themselves to floating weeds or grasses in
the water using little sticky organs between its'
mouth and belly area.
9- 4. Then, 7 to 10 days after the tadpole has
hatched, it will begin to swim around and feed on
algae.5. After about 4 weeks, the gills start
getting grown over by skin, until they eventually
disappear. The tadpoles get teeny tiny teeth
which help them grate food turning it into soupy
oxygenated particles. They have long coiled guts
that help them digest as much nutrients from
their meager diets as possible.By the fourth
week, tadpoles can actually be fairly social
creatures. Some even interact and school like
fish!
10- 6. After about 6 to 9 weeks, little tiny legs
start to sprout. The head becomes more distinct
and the body elongates. By now the diet may grow
to include larger items like dead insects and
even plants.The arms will begin to bulge where
they will eventually pop out, elbow first. 7.
After about 9 weeks, the tadpole looks more like
a teeny frog with a really long tail. It is now
well on it's way to being almost fullgrown!
11Young Frog, or Froglet
- 8. By 12 weeks, the tadpole has only a teeny tail
stub and looks like a miniature version of the
adult frog. Soon, it will leave the water, only
to return again to laymore eggs and start the
process all over again! - Goes with or in between 1 and 2. Usually, about
6-21 days (average!) after being fertilized, the
egg will hatch. Most eggs are found in calm or
static waters, to prevent getting too rumbled
about in infancy!
12- 9. By between 12 to 16 weeks, depending on water
and food supply, the frog has completed the full
growth cycle. Some frogs that live in higher
altitudes or in colder places might take a whole
winter to go through the tadpole stage...others
may have unique development stages that vary from
your "traditional" tadpole-in-the-water type life
cycle some of these are described later in this
tour.Now these frogs will start the whole
process again...finding mates and creating new
froggies.
13My, What Big Ears you Have!
- Frogs can hear using big round ears on the sides
of their head called a tympanum. Tympanum means
drum. The size and distance between the ears
depends on the wavelength and frequency of a male
frogs call. On some frogs, the ear is very hard
to see! - Ever wonder how frogs that can get so LOUD manage
not to hurt their own ears? Some frogs make so
much noise that they can be heard for miles! How
do they keep from blowing out their own
eardrums?Well, actually, frogs have special ears
that are connected to their lungs. When they hear
noises, not only does the eardrum vibrate, but
the lung does too! Scientists think that this
special pressure system is what keeps frogs from
hurting themselves with their noisy calls!
14Tympanum
15Different purposes for feet
- Feet For Flying!
- Feet For Digging
- Feet For Swimming
- Feet For Climbing
16What are these feet for?
Feet
17What kind of feet are these?
18What are these feet for?
19What kind of feet are these?
20I Only Have Eyes For You!
- Frogs have variable kinds of eye types. The
colored part of the eye is called the iris
(EYE-riss). They can be brown, green, silver,
red, bronze, and even gold. The pupils come in
all kinds of shapes too! - (1) Round pupils Some frogs have round pupils
just like you and me. Newts and Salamanders also
have round pupils. (2) Vertical pupils
Vertical pupils that look like a cats eye are
really good for night vision and respond quickly
to changes in light. (3) Horizontal-Shaped
pupils These are the more common pupil, good for
normal day-vision. (4) Heart-Shaped pupils
I'm not sure if it serves any purpose, but it
sure looks neat! Oriental fire-bellied Toads have
this type of pupil. Some frogs have Triangular
pupils, and some even have Star-Shaped pupils!
21WHAT KIND OF EYES DO I HAVE?
A
C
D
B
22WHAT KIND OF EYES DO I HAVE?
A Round pupils
C Horizontal-Shaped pupils
D Heart-Shaped pupils
B Vertical pupils
23Lab Focus Today
- Hibernation The frogs that live in colder
climates hibernate. Some dig holes or find
cracks in logs or rock areas. Their heart beats
and breathing slow down and their body
temperature reaches close to the outside
temperature. They have a lot of glucose in their
bodies and it keeps them from freezing.
Half-frozen frogs will thaw out and live. Some
frogs hibernate under water. These don't breathe
and get their oxygen from the water through their
skin. (Cutaneous Respiration)
24How to Tell if Your Tree Frog Is Male or Female
- It can be hard to tell if your pet frog is male
or female. - Do some measuring. Males are noticeably smaller
than females in most species of frog. A typical
male frog is one and one half to two and one
quarter inches long from head to bottom. Females
are two to three inches long.
25How to Tell if Your Tree Frog Is Male or Female
- Be a good listener. Males croak at night. This
sounds like a duck quacking and sometimes a dog
barking. Males will croak to the sound of
vacuums, running water, loud noises, to attract
females, and sometimes for no reason at all.
Females, on the other hand, don't really make any
noises.
26How to Tell if Your Tree Frog Is Male or Female
- Understand that if you still can't figure it out,
you can ask an experienced breeder or a
veterinarian. - Look at the throat. Most male frogs have a dark
patch on their throat because as they croak it
creates friction on the throat and darkens their
throat. - Check the ear. The ear of the frog is near the
brain. If its big, its a male but if it is small,
then its a female.
27Do Frogs Have Teeth?
- Actually, yes! But not like in this silly
picture!
28Frog Teeth
- Most frogs do in fact have teeth of a sort. They
have a ridge of very small cone teeth around the
upper edge of the jaw. These are called Maxillary
Teeth.Frogs often also have what are called
Vomerine Teeth on the roof of their mouth. They
don't have anything that could be called teeth on
their lower jaw, so they usually swallow their
food whole. The so-called "teeth" are mainly used
to hold the prey and keep it in place till they
can get a good grip on it and squash their
eyeballs down to swallow their meal.Toads,
however, do NOT have any teeth.
29Super Skin
- Frogs have very special skin! They don't just
wear it, they drink and breathe through it. - Frogs don't usually swallow water like we do.
Instead they absorb most of the moisture they
need through their skin. Not only that, but
frogs also rely on getting extra oxygen (in
addition to what they get from their lungs) from
the water by absorbing it through their skin.
Because frogs get oxygen through their skin when
it's moist, they need to take care of their skin
or they might suffocate. Sometimes you'll find
frogs that are slimy. This is because the frog
skin secretes a mucus that helps keep it moist.
Even with the slimy skin, these frogs need to
stay near water. Toads on the other hand have
tougher skin that doesn't dry out as fast, so
they can live farther from water than most frogs.
30- In addition to jumping in water, frogs and toads
can get moisture from dew, or they can burrow
underground into moist soil. Frogs shed their
skin regularly to keep it healthy. Some frogs
shed their skin weekly, others as often as every
day! This looks pretty yucky...they start to
twist and turn and act like they have the
hiccups. They do this to stretch themselves out
of their old skin! Finally, the frog pulls the
skin off over it's head, like a sweater, and then
(this is gross) the frog EATS IT!!!! (EEEEEWWW!)
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32How Long Do Frogs Live?
- Amazingly, this is the hardest question I've been
asked about frogs! - It turns out that very little is known at all
about the natural lifespan of frogs. Partially,
this is because it's pretty hard to track a frog
all its life! (I guess they havent figured out a
good way to put little tiny collars around their
necks!) - However,some records show that in captivity, many
species of frogs and toads can live for
surprisingly long times. They seem generally
average somewhere between 4 and 15 years! - Recently I ran across a page where people were
posting data about how long their species of
frogs had lived in captivity. The longest
lifespan entered was a European Common Toad (Bufo
bufo ssp.) at 40 years!!!!!
33- Other species which live to ripe old ages
include - Giant Toad (Bufo marinus) ranging between 7 and
24 years - Green And Black Poison Dart Frog (Dendrobates
auratus) ranging between 7 and 17 years - Oriental Fire-bellied Toad (Bombina orientalis)
ranging between 11 and 14 years - Ornate Horned Frog (Ceratophrys ornata) ranging
from 5 to 12 years
34examples of albino frogs.
- This weird looking guy was found in a garden pond
in the UK.Species unknown.
35Pac-Man Frog.
- Here is the albino version of the same species,
the Pac-Man frog.(Photo from the Best Buy
Commercial from 1997, featuring this website!)
36Horned Frogs
- Horned Frogs (Ceratophrys), like this Gastrotheca
ceratophrys have a projecting flap, or "horn," of
skin above each eye. Click on the image to see it
full sized.
37Frogs and Myth
- Lots of different cultures have all kinds of
interesting myths pertaining to Frogs. - Frogs and Weather Frogs have been associated with
weather in a lot of ancient cultures. I guess
this really makes a lot of sense if you consider
that they tend to make a lot of noise before rain
storms. - Some Australian aborigines and Native American
groups believed that frogs were the bringers of
rain. - In India, frogs were believed to personify
thunder in the sky. Even the word for "frog" also
meant "cloud" in Sanskrit! - In China, they see the "TOAD", not the "man" of
the moon. The toad is also considered "one of the
five poisons of yin." They say that eclipses
happen when the "toad in the moon" tries to
swallow the moon itself!
38- Frogs and Luck Sometimes, cultures associated
frogs with good and bad fortune. - In Japan, frogs are the symbols of Good Luck. One
myth I read dealt with the idea that bullfrogs
are descended from a great ancestor who could
suck all the mosquitoes out of a whole room in a
single breath! - Some myths are less favoring to frogs and toads.
Some folklorists have claimed that "If the first
frog that you see in the spring is sitting on dry
ground, it signifies that during the same year
you will shed as many tears as the frog would
require to swim away in."
39- If, on the other hand, the first frog of spring
jumps into the water, you'll experience
misfortune all year! However, if the springs'
first "hoptoad" come jumping in your direction,
you will have many friends if it jumps away from
you, you will lose some. - Some less enlightened people associate frogs, and
Toads in particular, as evil incarnations of
demons or devils! - Frogs and Warts Some say that you get warts from
touching frogs and toads.
40- You get warts from human viruses, not from frogs
and toads!Frogs have slimy skin to stay moist
when it is dry, and toads have bumpy skin to help
camouflage them in their habitat. Some frogs and
toads have paratoidal glands which secrete
poisons as protection which can cause skin
irritations and may be poisonous to some species
of animals, but warts have nothing at all to do
with the frogs themselves! - The French and the Frogs For some reason, the
French have been given the nickname Frogs...There
are many different theories about how this came
to be...
41- The story I had always heard was that the
nickname dates waaay back to sometime around the
18th century, when Paris was surrounded by many
swamps...The French nobility that would visit
Versailles apparently tended to refer to
Parisians as frogs because of the swampy
surroundings...and only later did the term get
picked up to describe the French in general. - Another story I've heard was that American
soldiers adopted the nickname for the French
during the World War II because they ate frog
legs and hid well when camouflaged. - I've also heard that a frog used to be on the
French Flag, before the Fleurs de Lis was adopted
when King Clovis took the throne....
42- Batrachophobia- Fear of amphibians, such as
frogs, newts, salamanders, etc.Ranidaphobia-
Fear of frogs.Bufonophobia- Fear of toads.
43End of Frog Section
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45Introduction
- These are amphibians and are of the order Caudata
in the scientific system of classification. The
word "salamander" generally refers to any tailed
amphibian lacking claws or ear openings. This
means that newts are essentially salamanders. The
definition of "newt" is a matter of great
controversy and may vary from area to area or
from country to country. Usually, the type of
salamander known as a newt in many places is not
as slimy as the majority of salamanders are,
having rougher skin. Newts, unlike many other
salamanders, may be semi-aquatic. Some people
refer to salamanders that have a life stage known
as the "eft" stage as newts. Again, however, such
definitions may not hold true for everyone. For
the purpose of this document, the word salamander
will be used to indicate all types of salamanders
including newts.
46Housing
- you should first determine what sort of habitat
your animal is native to in the wild. Then, you
should try to reconstruct this habitat as closely
as possible. Most often this can be accomplished
in a plastic or glass tank, as these are water
impermeable.
47- Because salamanders can climb, aided with fluids
or mucous secreted from their bodies, you should
have a fitted lid for your enclosure. Salamanders
often need such high levels of humidity, so a
screen or mesh top may not be a good idea. Many
people prefer to use a plastic lid with holes
drilled into it.
48Housing continued
- the tank has been set up and running for at least
a few days before your salamander arrives - Because salamanders are cold blooded and cannot
produce their own heat, their temperature will
essentially match that of their surroundings - Most salamanders, even terrestrial species, will
require a high humidity. Generally this level is
50 percent or more.
49Housing Continued
- These animals absorb water through their skins
rather than drinking it. Humidity may be
increased and maintained in several ways. One way
is to keep a bowl of water in the enclosure,
although some people prefer to have a wet area of
substrate rather than standing water. - Plants may also be used in the enclosure in order
to help maintain humidity. These will allow shade
to your animals in addition to collecting water
droplets on their leaves. You may want to mist
the enclosure several times a day as well
50Housing Continued
- Most salamanders will appreciate a hiding area in
their enclosures. This can be created with leafy
plants or with as simple an item as a cardboard
box. This will provide it with a place to feel
secure. Even aquatic salamanders will probably
appreciate a floating plant that they can hide
under. Many people like to place one hide box in
each end of the enclosure. That way, the animal
can thermoregulate without having to remain in
the open.
51- Because amphibians have very sensitive skins, you
should try to be extra careful to remove all
chemical residue from the enclosure after
cleaning. - There are two types of cleaners available for
your use mechanical and disinfectants
52Housing continued
- Generally it is best to keep salamanders of the
same species together if you plan on having more
than one salamander in each enclosure. Because
salamanders may secrete toxic fluids, different
species can actually be poisonous to one another.
Also, salamanders may eat other salamanders, so
cage mates should be roughly similar in size.
Although some people choose to keep their aquatic
salamanders with fish or aquatic frogs, this may
cause the animals to be more susceptible to
disease, and it may be difficult to keep them
from eating the fish.
53Diet
- Most salamanders are carnivorous and feed on
invertebrates, but nutrition requirements can
vary from species to species. - Generally, terrestrial salamanders can be
encouraged to feed by movement. Aquatic
salamanders may be stimulated by odor, touch, and
movement.
54Diet continued
- Try to feed your animal a wide variety of
appropriate dietary items. This will not only
keep it from developing an aversion to or
"boredom" with the food, but it will help ensure
that your salamander is getting a nutritionally
balanced diet. Most salamanders will need to be
fed a few times a week however, younger
salamanders may need to eat more often because
they are growing.
55- Most salamanders will eat insects
- White worms, bloodworms, and mealworms are all
available for purchase and can be fed to your
animal. Many people choose to use kingworms or
superworms (Zophobas sp.), rather than mealworms.
- Other insects including roaches, crickets,
locusts, slugs, and flies are available for
purchase as well. Some salamanders eat small
feeder fish like guppies or goldfish, and others
may eat pinkie mice.
56Diet
- Just make sure that the food items are fully
thawed before they are offered to your
salamander. If possible, warm the prey item up to
the temperature it would have been when it was
alive.
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58Pro-active care
- Salamanders shed their skin every few days, every
few weeks, or every few months. In colder
temperatures, they may not shed at all, as their
metabolism and body functions slow. If the level
of humidity in the enclosure is appropriate for
your salamander, there should generally be no
problem with this process.
59Pro-active care continued
- However, sometimes salamanders may experience
incomplete sheds, known as "dysecdysis". This
means that some part of the animal's skin has
been retained. As it dries, it can shrink,
cutting off blood flow to the tissues underneath.
If you notice that your salamander has retained
some skin after its shed, it may be advisable to
soak the area in tepid water before gently
massaging it to remove the skin. If your
salamander's skin is too delicate to handle, you
should consult a veterinarian.
60Health
- In order to select a healthy salamander,
- (signs that it may not be healthy) be sure that
the animal you pick is not bloated, or emaciated,
- (signs that it should be in good health) but it
should be plump. It should not have visible bones
or inflammation on any part of its body. The skin
should be clean and should not be discolored,
cut, or scratched. The eyes of a healthy
salamander are bright and clear, and there are
generally no secretions around the eye, nostrils,
or mouth areas. Healthy salamanders are usually
active and will try to escape you if you attempt
to pick one up
61care
- Some salamanders have very fragile skins and are
not physically able to be handled. Their skins
can be damaged by the oils in our skins, or by
simple friction. Also, some salamanders can
produce toxic secretions irritating to human
skin. - After your salamander has been handled, be sure
it has access to water or some other way to keep
moist. Some species of salamander will let you
know when they are stressed by arching their
backs to show the bright warning colors of their
bellies.
62health
- Some salamanders will naturally produce a
protective slimy coating over their bodies and
handling can disrupt this. - Some salamanders can regenerate limbs and tails
if they lose them. However, this process is
physically stressful for the animal and
detrimental to its health.
63- Zoonoses are diseases that are transmissible from
animals to humans. People that are most at risk
are those who are immunocompromised or
immunosuppressed, patients undergoing
immunosuppressive therapies, infants and young
children, the elderly, and those with a chronic
disease that compromises the immune system. - Potential zoonotic risks Aeromonas,
Campylobacter, Citrobacter, Cryptosporidia,
Enterobacter, Erysipelothrix, Klebsiella,
Mycobacterium, Proteus, Pseudomonas,
Salmonellosis, Serratia, and Yersinia
enterocolitica.
64health
- The best way to avoid these and any other
zoonoses is to maintain sanitary conditions and
to wash your hands before and after handling your
salamander. If you suspect that you may have
acquired a zoonotic disease, you should certainly
bring it to the attention of your physician.
65Diseases
- Bumblefoot - inflammation of digits that can
cause the animal limitations in mobility or great
discomfort. - Physical Symptoms - swelling of the digits. In
extreme cases, the skin may split over the digit
or the entire digit may drop off. - Cause/Transmission - bacterial infection.
Stressed animals or animals in otherwise poor
health or poor husbandry conditions may be more
susceptible. - Treatment - bathe affected area in a bactericidal
solution formulated for tropical fish. Usually
three drops in a pint of water will resolve the
infection if the animal is bathed twice a day for
ten minutes in this solution. Consult your
veterinarian.
66- Burns - skin damage caused by excessive heat.
These may be general, covering the whole animal
in extreme cases, but are more usually found
localized over specific areas of an animal. - Physical Symptoms - visible damage to the skin,
varying in extremity and ranging from areas of
gray or red coloration to blistered areas. - Cause/Transmission - caused by direct heat
touching the animal's skin. They may be
occasionally caused by an exposed heating element
in the animal's enclosure. - Treatment - for serious burns or burns covering a
large area of your snake, consult your
veterinarian. Less serious burns may be rinsed in
a povidone iodine solution.
67- Dehydration - desiccation of amphibian.
- Physical Symptoms - dry, wrinkly skin, emaciated
look. - Cause/Transmission - exposure to heat, lack of
water, low humidity. - Treatment - soak or mist affected amphibian to
rehydrate. Keep amphibian clean to avoid
opportunistic skin infections.
68- Dropsy - heavy accumulation of serous fluid in
the amphibian's body. - Physical Symptoms - abnormalities or softening of
abdominal skin bloating. - Cause/Transmission - metabolic disruption or
abnormality caused by poor husbandry and possibly
bacterial infection. - Treatment - consult your veterinarian. Generally
he or she will use a needle to aspirate the body
fluid before disinfecting the resulting puncture
wound.
69- Fungal infections - invasions of fungus over the
animal's body, most often seen in aquatic
animals. - Physical Symptoms - noticeable skin color
changes, especially red or inflamed white
tissues, ulceration of the skin. Slimy feel to
skin, skin coated in fuzzy or creamy material or
whitish threading. - Cause/Transmission - fungal spores or fungus in
water, enclosure, or other amphibians or fish
dirty conditions generally poor husbandry. - Treatment - consult your veterinarian
70- Internal Parasites - parasites inhabiting the
host's internal organs. Varieties range from
single celled parasites (such as Monocercomonas
and Giardia) to worms (such as tapeworms). - Physical Symptoms - often there will be no
symptoms although some animals may have decreased
appetites, weight loss, or regurgitation.
Subcutaneous parasites often can be felt just
under the skin. Fecal or blood examinations by a
veterinarian are the preferred methods of
diagnosis. - Cause/Transmission - internal parasites are
usually passed from one animal to another through
direct and indirect contact between hosts which
can include infected prey items. - Treatment - consult your veterinarian. Many will
recommend medications such as Metronidazole,
Oxfendazole, Fenbendazole, Levamisole, or
Ivermectin.
71- Metabolic Bone Disease - most commonly seen in,
but not limited to, herbivorous lizards, a
calcium deficiency that causes the animal's bones
to soften or break easily. In severe instances
when the disease is untreated, paralysis or death
may result. - Physical Symptoms - squeeze the animal's jaw
gently. If it feels soft or if it "gives", the
bones may have become soft. Lethargy or bent,
collapsed backs may be another symptom. Most
commonly, swellings on the limbs are evident. - Cause/Transmission - diets low in calcium or
inability to process calcium due to insufficient
sunlight/UVB exposure. - Treatment - ensure your animal is fed a proper
diet and that it has plenty of exposure to
sunlight. Consult your veterinarian if the
condition continues to worsen.
72- Minor Cuts or Scrapes - minor skin damage caused
by the abrasion away or slicing of the skin. - Physical symptoms - visible cuts or scrapes.
- Cause/Transmission - sharp surfaces in the
animal's enclosure which catch on the animal's
skin, repeated contact with jagged or rough
surfaces that has abraded the skin, physical
skirmishes with other animals. Many times an
animal will rub a part of its body, like its
nose, repeatedly on a rough rock or screen and
may abrade its skin. Live prey items can also
scratch or bite your animal. - Treatment - clean the area with a povidone iodine
solution. Consult your veterinarian.
73Breeding
- The first step in breeding your salamanders is to
determine its sex. This may sometimes be done
visually. Males of many species have forearms
thicker than those of females. Some also have
more streamlined bodies than females, and they
may also be smaller. Sometimes the tails of males
will be broader, or they may have larger hind
legs. - Usually the cloaca of the male will be much more
swollen or obvious than that of a female.
74Breeding
- Many salamanders can be encouraged to breed by a
change in season. This may involve cooling then
warming them to mimic the onset of spring, or you
may have to aestivate your salamanders. Be sure
to find out the specific requirements for your
salamander in order to create a successful
breeding situation.
75Breeding
- Most salamanders have a rather different breeding
process than many other animals. Often, it
consists of a courtship display in which the male
will induce the female to mate. Sometimes this
will involve moving her into an aquatic area. The
male may display his tail or crest to her, or he
may climb on top of her and grasp her in an
embrace known as amplexus. When the female
salamander gives a sign that she is ready, the
male will usually produce one or more
spermatophores, or sperm-containing clumps.
Sometimes these are cone-shaped.
76Breeding
- The female must then take up the substance into
her cloaca to fertilize her eggs. Sometimes she
will do this independently, and sometimes the
male will pull her across the spermatophores.
Female salamanders may mate several times, and
collect several spermatophores from different
males. This is to ensure that her offspring are
of varied genetic stock and that she will
reproduce.
77Breeding
- Although some salamanders might not show
pregnancy obviously, others can become quite
plump. There are a variety of birthing methods
among salamander species. Salamanders may lay
eggs that hatch into larvae. The larvae then
develop into adult salamanders. Some will give
birth to living larvae. Others will produce eggs
whose hatchlings have no larval stage, rather
they emerge from their eggs as miniature adults.
Many will lay eggs one by one, attaching them to
some surface. Aquatic plants or rocks are
commonly utilized for such a purpose.
78Breeding
- In the wild, young salamanders may be mistaken
for tadpole frogs. It is usually best to separate
any young salamanders from adult salamanders, as
the mature animals may eat the babies. Babies
should be fed the same food items as adults, but
these items should be chopped small enough for
the young amphibians to handle.