APES Unit 2 Abiotic and Biotic Parts of Ecosystems

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APES Unit 2Abiotic and Biotic Parts of Ecosystems

• La Cañada High School
• Living in the Environment by Miller, 11th Edition

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Chapter 3

• Matter and Energy Resources

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Matter and Energy Resources Types and Concepts

• 3-1 Matter Forms, Structure, and Quality
• 3-2 Energy Forms and Quality
• 3-3 Physical and Chemical Changes and the Law
  of Conservation of Matter
• 3-4 Nuclear Changes
• 3-5 The Two Ironclad Laws of Energy
• 3-6 Connections Matter and Energy Laws and
  Environmental Problems

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MatterForms, Structure, and Quality

• Matter is anything that has mass and takes up
  space.
• Matter is found in two chemical forms elements
  and compounds.
• Various elements, compounds, or both can be found
  together in mixtures.

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Solid, Liquid, and Gas
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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

• Atoms The smallest unit of matter that is unique
  to a particular element.
• Ions Electrically charged atoms or combinations
  of atoms.
• Molecules Combinations of two or more atoms of
  the same or different elements held together by
  chemical bonds.

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What are Atoms?

• The main building blocks of an atom are
  positively charged PROTONS, uncharged NEUTRONS,
  and negatively charged ELECTRONS
• Each atom has an extremely small center, or
  nucleus, containing protons and neutrons.

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http//zebu.uoregon.edu/js/ast123/images/atom.jpg
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Atomic Number and Mass Number.

• Atomic number
• The number of protons in the nucleus of each of
  its atoms.
• Mass number
• The total number of protons and neutrons in its
  nucleus.

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• Elements are organized through the periodic table
  by classifications of metals, nonmetals, and
  metalloids

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Inorganic Compounds

• All compounds not Organic
• Ionic Compounds
• Sodium chloride (NaCl)
• Sodium bicarbonate (NaOH)
• Covalent compounds
• Hydrogen(H2)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
• Ammonia (NH3)

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Formation of Ionic Compounds

• Transfer of electrons between the atoms of these
  elements result in drastic changes to the
  elements involved
• Sodium and chlorine serves as a example
• Sodium is a rather "soft" metal solid, with a
  silver-gray color
• Chlorine is greenish colored gas
• Sodium chloride, commonly called table salt -- a
  white, crystalline, and brittle solid

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Inorganic Compounds

• The earths crust is composed of mostly inorganic
  minerals and rock
• The crust is the source of all most nonrenewable
  resource we use fossil fuels, metallic minerals,
  etc.

Various combinations of only eight elements make
up the bulk of most minerals.
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Nonmetallic Elements.

• Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S),
  Hydrogen (H), and Phosphorous (P)
• Nonmetallic elements make up about 99 of the
  atoms of all living things

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Covalent Bonds

• The individual atoms are atoms of chlorine with
  only their valence electrons shown. 
• Note that each chlorine atom has only seven
  valence electrons, but really wants eight. 
• When each chlorine atom shares its unpaired
  electron, both atoms are tricked into thinking
  each has a full valence of eight electrons.
• Notice that the individual atoms have full
  freedom from each other, but once the bond is
  formed, energy is released, and the new chlorine
  molecule (Cl2) behaves as a single particle.

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• A covalent bond is typically formed by two
  non-metals
• Non-metals have similar electronegativities
• Neither atom is "strong" enough to steal
  electrons from the other
• Therefore, the atoms must share the electrons. 

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Organic Compounds

• Compounds containing carbon atoms combined with
  each other with atoms of one or more other
  elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
  sulfur, etc.
• Hydrocarbons
• Compounds of carbon and hydrogen
• Chlorofluorocarbons
• Carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms
• Simple carbohydrates
• carbon, hydrogen, oxygen combinations

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Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons
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Biological Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates (Glucose) Protein (Cytochrome
P450)
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Biological Organic Compounds
Lipid (Triglyceride) Nucleic
Acid (DNA)
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Earths Crust
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Matter Quality

• Matter quality is a measure of how useful a
  matter resource is, based in its availability and
  concentration.
• High quality matter is organized, concentrated,
  and usually found near the earths crust.
• Low quality is disorganized, dilute, and has
  little potential for use as a matter resource.

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Quality Counts
LOW QUALITY
HIGH QUALITY
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Energy

• Energy is the capacity to do work and transfer
  heat.

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Kinetic Energy

• Kinetic energy is the energy that matter has
  because of its mass and its speed or velocity.
• It is energy in action or motion.
• Wind, flowing streams, falling rocks,
  electricity, moving car - all have kinetic energy.

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Potential Energy

• Potential energy is stored energy that is
  potential available for use.
• Potential energy can be changed to kinetic
  energy.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The range of electromagnetic waves, which differ
  in wavelength (distance between successive peaks
  or troughs) and energy content.

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Energy Quality

• Very High
• Electricity, Nuclear fission, and Concentrated
  sunlight.
• High
• Hydrogen gas, Natural gas, and Coal.
• Moderate
• Normal sunlight, and wood.
• Low
• Low-temperature heat and dispersed geothermal
  energy.

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Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy

• In any nuclear change, the total amount of matter
  and energy involved remains the same.
• E mc2
• The energy created by the release of the strong
  nuclear forces for 1 kilogram of matter will
  produce enough energy to elevated the temperature
  of all the water used in the Los Angeles basin in
  one day by 10,000oC

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Natural Radioactive Decay

• Natural radioactive decay is a nuclear change in
  which unstable isotopes spontaneously emit fast
  moving particles, high energy radiation, or both
  at a fixed rate.

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Alpha, Beta, Gamma Rays.
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Nuclear Fission

• Nuclear fission is a nuclear change in which
  nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass
  numbers are split apart into lighter nuclei when
  struck by neutrons, each fission releases two or
  three more neutrons and energy.

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What is Nuclear Fusion?

• Nuclear Fusion is a nuclear change in which two
  isotopes of light elements, such as hydrogen, are
  forced together at extremely high temperatures
  until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus,
  releasing energy in the process.

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The First Law of Thermodynamics

• In all physical can chemical changes, energy is
  neither created nor destroyed, but it may be
  converted from one form to another.

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics.

• Physical, chemical, and electrical energy can be
  completely changed into heat.
• But the reverse (heat into physical energy, for
  example) cannot be fully accomplished without
  outside help or without an inevitable loss of
  energy in the form of irretrievable heat.
• This does not mean that the energy is destroyed
  it means that it becomes unavailable for
  producing work.

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High Waste or High-Throughput Societies

• Most of todays advanced industrialized countries
  are high waste or high throughput societies
• They attempt to sustain ever-increasing economic
  growth by increasing the throughput of matter and
  energy resources in their economic systems.

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Matter Recycling Societies

• A stopgap solution to this problem is to convert
  an unsustainable high-throughput society to a
  matter-recycling society.

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Low Waste Societies

• The three scientific laws governing matter and
  energy changes indicate that the best long-term
  solution to our environmental and resource
  problems is to shift from a society based on
  maximizing matter and energy flow to a
  sustainable low waste society.

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Chapter 4

• Ecology, Ecosystems, and Food Webs

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Chapter 4Ecology, Ecosystems, and Food Webs

• 4-1 Ecology and Life
• 4-2 Earths Life-Support Systems
• 4-3 Ecosystem Concept
• 4-4 Food Webs and Energy Flow in Ecosystems
• 4-5 How do Ecologists learn about Ecosystems?
• 4-6 Ecosystem Services and Sustainability

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4-1 Ecology and Life

• Ecology- study of relationships between organisms
  and their environment
• Ecology examines how organisms interact with
  their nonliving (abiotic) environment such as
  sunlight, temperature, moisture, and vital
  nutrients
• Biotic interaction among organisms, populations,
  communities, ecosystems, and the ecosphere

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Distinction between Species

• Wild species- one that exists as a population of
  individuals in a natural habitat, ideally similar
  to the one in which its ancestors evolved
• Domesticated species- animals such as cows,
  sheep, food crops, animals in zoos

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Vocabulary

• Population- a group of interacting individuals of
  the same species that occupy a specific area at
  the same time
• Genetic diversity- populations that are dynamic
  groups that change in size, age distribution,
  density, and genetic composition as a result of
  changes in environmental conditions

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• Habitat the place where a population or
  individual organism naturally lives
• Community a complex interacting network of
  plants, animals, and microorganisms
• Ecosystem community of different species
  interacting with one another and with their
  nonliving environment of matter and energy
• Ecosphere or Biosphere all of earth's ecosystems

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What is Life?

• All life shares a set of basic characteristics
  that enable growth, survival, and reproduction
• Living organisms are made of cells that have
  highly organized internal structure and functions
• Living organisms have characteristic types of
  deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules in each cell

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• Living organisms capture and transform matter and
  energy from their environment to supply their
  needs for survival, growth, and reproduction
• Living organisms maintain favorable internal
  conditions, despite changes in their external
  environment through homeostasis, if not
  overstressed
• Living organisms perpetuate themselves through
  reproduction
• Living organisms adapt to changes in
  environmental conditions through the process of
  evolution

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4-2 Earths Life-Support Systems

• The Earth contains
• several layers or
• concentric spheres
• Core- innermost zone, mostly iron, solid inner
  part, surrounded by a liquid core of molten
  material
• Mantle- surrounded by a thick, solid zone,
  largest zone, rich with iron, silicon, oxygen,
  and magnesium, very hot
• Crust- outermost and thinnest zone, eight
  elements make up 98.5 of the weight of the
  earths crust
• Lithosphere- earths crust and upper mantle

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• Atmosphere- thin envelope of air around the
  planet
• Troposphere- extends about 17 kilometers above
  sea level, contains nitrogen (78), oxygen (21),
  and is where weather occurs
• Stratosphere- 17-48 kilometers above sea level,
  lower portions contains enough ozone (O3) to
  filter out most of the suns ultraviolet radiation

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• Hydrosphere- consists of the earths liquid
  water, ice, and water vapor in the atmosphere

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What Sustains Life on Earth?

• Life on the earth depends on three interconnected
  factors
• One-way flow of high-quality energy from the sun
• Cycling of matter or nutrients (all atoms, ions,
  or molecules needed for survival by living
  organisms), through all parts of the ecosphere
• Gravity, which allows the planet to hold onto its
  atmosphere and causes the downward movement of
  chemicals in the matter cycles

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Solar Energy

• Sun
• Fireball of hydrogen (72) and helium (28)
• Nuclear fusion
• Sun existed for 6 Billion years. Sun will stay
  for another 6.5 billion years.
• 72 of solar energy warms the lands
• 0.023 of solar energy is captured by green
  plants and bacteria
• Powers the cycling of matter and weather system
• Distributes heat and fresh water

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www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/
climch/clichgr1.htm
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Type of Nutrients

• Nutrient Any atom ion, or molecule an organism
  needs to live grow or reproduce
• Ex carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen etc
• Macronutrient nutrient that organisms need in
  large amount
• Ex phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, iron etc
• Micronutrient nutrient that organism need in
  small amount
• Ex zinc, sodium, copper etc

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BiomesLarge regions characterized by distinct
climate, and specific life-forms

• Climate
• long-term weather main factor determining what
  type of life will be in a certain area.

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Ecosphere Separation

• The Ecosphere and its ecosystem can be separated
  into two parts
• Abiotic- nonliving, components
• Ex air, water, solar energy
• Physical and chemical factors that influence
  living organisms
• Biotic- living, components
• Ex plants and animals

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Range of Tolerance

• The existence, abundance, and distribution of a
  species in an ecosystem are determined by the
  levels of one or more physical or chemical
  factors
• Differences in genetic makeup, health, and age.
• Ex trout has to live in colder water than bass

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Limiting Factor Principle

• Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can
  limit growth of population, even if all the other
  factors are at optimum (favorable) range of
  tolerance.
• Ex If a farmer plants corn in phosphorus-poor
  soil, even if water, nitrogen are in a optimum
  levels, corn will stop growing, after it uses up
  available phosphorus.

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Dissolved Oxygen Content

• Amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a given volume
  of water at a particular temperature and
  pressure.
• Limiting factor of aquatic ecosystem

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Salinity

• Amount of salt dissolved in given volume of water

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Living Organisms in Ecosystem

• 1. Producers or autotrophs- makes their own food
  from compounds obtained from environment.
• Photosynthesis- ability of producer to convert
  sunlight, abiotic nutrients to sugars and other
  complex organic compounds.
• Chlorophyll- traps solar energy and converts into
  chemical energy.
• Carbon dioxidewatersolar energy ? glucose
  oxygen

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• Producers transform
• 1-5 of absorbed energy into chemical energy
  (glucose), which is stored in complex
  carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid
  in plant tissue

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Chemosynthesis-

• Bacteria can convert simple compounds from their
  environment into more complex nutrient compound
  without sunlight
• Ex becomes consumed by tubeworms, clams, crabs
• Bacteria can survive in great amount of heat

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Consumers or Heterotrophs

• Obtain energy and nutrient by feeding on other
  organisms or their remains

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• 2. Herbivores (plant-eaters) or primary
  consumers- they feed directly on producers
• Deer, goats, rabbits
• 3. Carnivores (meat eater) or secondary
  consumers-feed only on primary consumer
• Lion, Tiger
• 4. Tertiary (higher-level) consumer- feed only on
  other carnivores
• Wolf
• 5. Omnivores- consumers that eat both plants and
  animals
• Ex pigs, humans, bears

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• 6. Scavengers- feed on dead organisms
• Vultures, flies, crows, shark
• 7. Detritivores- live off detritus
• Detritus parts of dead organisms and wastes of
  living organisms.
• 8. Detritus feeders- extract nutrients from
  partly decomposed organic matter plant debris,
  and animal dung.
• 9. Decomposers- Fungi and bacteria that breaks
  down and recycles organic materials from wastes
  of all organisms. Dead organisms waste to
  nutrients
• Food sources for worms and insects
• Biodegradable- can be broken down by decomposers

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Respiration

• Aerobic respiration- uses oxygen to convert
  organic nutrients back into carbon dioxide and
  water
• Glucose oxygen ? Carbon dioxide water
  energy
• Anaerobic respiration or fermentation-form of
  cellular respiration, decomposers get energy they
  need through breakdown of glucose in oxygen

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• Decomposers complete the cycle of matter by
  breaking down organic waste, dead animal. Plant
  litter and garbage.
• Whether dead or alive organisms are potential
  (standard) sources of food for other organisms.
• Food Chain-Series of organisms in which each eats
  or decomposes the preceding one

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Second Law of Energy

• Organisms need high quality chemical energy to
  move, grow and reproduce, and this energy is
  converted into low-quality heat that flows into
  environment
• Trophic levels or feeding levels
• Producer is a first trophic level
• primary consumer is second trophic level
• secondary consumer is third
• Decomposers process detritus from all trophic
  levels.

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• Food web-complex network of interconnected food
  chains.
• Food web and chains are one-way flow of energy
  and cycling of nutrients through ecosystem.

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Food Webs

• Grazing food webs energy and nutrients move from
  plants to herbivores, then through an array of
  carnivores, and eventually to decomposers
• Detrital food webs organic waste material or
  detritus is the major food source, and energy
  flows mainly from producers (plants) to
  decomposers and detritivores.

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Biomass

• Dry weight of all organic matter contained in
  organisms.
• Biomass is measured in dry weight because water
  is not a nutrient or a source of energy
• Ex biomass of first trophic levels are dry mass
  of all producers
• On successive trophic level, biomass is neither
  eaten, digested, nor absorbed it simple goes
  through the intestinal tract of consumer and is
  expelled as fecal waste.
• Useable energy transferred as biomass varies from
  5-20

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• Pyramid of Energy Flow
• More steps or trophic levels in food chain or
  web, greater loss of usable energy as energy
  flows through trophic levels
• More trophic levels the Chains or Webs have more
  energy is consumed after each one. Thats why
  food chains and webs rarely have more than 4 steps

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• Pyramid of biomass- storage of biomass at various
  trophic levels of ecosystem
• NOTE After every trophic level less and less
  energy is transferred
• Producer gets the most amount of energy, thats
  why there is a lot of producers, herbivores
  consume producers however they need to consume
  they get less energy then producers by consuming
  them
• Carnivores get much less energy than herbivores,
  thats why there are more herbivores than
  carnivores, and carnivores

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Pyramid of Numbers

• Number of organisms at each trophic level

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• Gross primary productivity (GPP)- rate in which
  producers convert solar energy into chemical
  energy as biomass in a given amount of time

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• Net primary productivity (NPP)- Rate in which
  energy for use by consumers is stored in new
  biomass.
• Measured in kilocalories per square meter per
  year or grams in biomass
• NPP is limit determining the planets carrying
  capacity for all species.
• 59 of NPP occurs in land / 41 occurs in ocean

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Ecological Efficiency

• Percentage of energy transferred from one trophic
  level to another.
• 10 ecological efficiency
• green plants transfer 10,000 units of energy from
  sun
• only about 1000 energy will be available for
  herbivores
• 100 units for primary consumer
• 10 units for secondary consumer

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Ways to unravel workings of ecosystem

• Field research- going into nature and observing
  ecosystem
• Laboratory research- observe and making
  measurements under laboratory condition
• System analysis- view ecosystem and study their
  structure and functions (1960s)

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FIELD RESEARCH

• Going into nature and observing/measuring the
  structure of ecosystems
• Majority of what we know now comes from this type
• Disadvantage is that it is expensive,
  time-consuming, and difficult to carry out
  experiments due to many variables

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LABORATORY RESEARCH

• Set up, observation, and measurement of model
  ecosystems under laboratory conditions
• Conditions can easily be controlled and are quick
  and cheap
• Disadvantage is that it is never certain whether
  or not result in a laboratory will be the same as
  a result in a complex, natural ecosystem

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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

• Simulation of ecosystem rather than study real
  ecosystem
• Helps understand large and very complicated
  systems

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Why is the Ecosystem important?

• Ecosystem services natural services or earth
  capital that support life on the earth and are
  essential to the quality of human life and to the
  functioning of the worlds economies
• Ecosystem services include
• Controlling and moderating climate
• Providing and renewing air, water, soil
• Recycling vital nutrients through chemical cycling

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Why is the Ecosystem important?

• Providing renewable and nonrenewable energy
  sources and nonrenewable minerals
• Furnishing people with food, fiber, medicines,
  timber, and paper
• Pollinating crops and other plant species
• Absorbing, diluting, and detoxifying many
  pollutants and toxic chemicals
• Helping control populations of pests and disease
  organisms
• Slowing erosion and preventing flooding
• Providing biodiversity of genes and species

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Why Is Biodiversity So Important?

• Biodiversity is the variety of different species,
  genetic variability among individuals within each
  species, and variety of ecosystems
• Gives us food, wood, fibers, energy, raw
  materials, industrial chemicals, medicines, and
  provides for billions of dollars in the global
  economy

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Why Is Biodiversity So Important?

• Provides recycling, purification, and natural
  pest control
• Represents the millions of years of adaptation,
  and is raw material for future adaptations

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What are the two principles of ecosystem
sustainability?

• Use renewable solar energy as energy source
• Efficiently recycle nutrients organisms need for
  survival, growth, and reproduction

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Chapter 5

• Nutrient Cycles and Soils

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Matter Cycling in Ecosystems

• Nutrient cycles or Biogeochemical cycles, involve
  natural processes that recycle nutrients in
  various chemical forms in a cyclic manner from
  the nonliving environment to living organisms and
  back to non living environment again.

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Major Types of Nutrient Cycles

• Hydrologic
• Water in the form of ice, liquid water, and water
  vapor cycles
• Operates local, regional, and global levels
• Atmospheric
• Large portion of a given element (i.e. Nitrogen
  gas) exists in gaseous form in the atmosphere
• Operates local, regional, and global levels
• Sedimentary
• The element does not have a gaseous phase or its
  gaseous compounds dont make up a significant
  portion of its supply
• Operates local and regional basis

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Nutrient Cycling Ecosystem Sustainability

• Self Contained
• Energy flow and nutrient cycling seem to imply
  that ecosystems are virtually self-sustaining,
  closed systems, at the ecosphere level
• As long as they are not disturbed by human
  activates such as clearing
• Forest can have a minimal lost
• Nutrients lost form one ecosystem must enter one
  or more other ecosystems

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Nutrient Cycling Ecosystem Sustainability

• Nutrient Cycling and Sustainability
• Given time natural ecosystems ten to come into a
  balance, wherein nutrients are recycled with
  reasonable effici3ency
• Humans are accelerating rates of the flow of
  mater, causing nutrient loss from soils
• Scientist warn that this doubling of normal flow
  of nitrogen in the nitrogen cycle is a serious
  global problem that contributes to global
  warming, ozone depletion, air pollution, and loss
  of biodiversity
• Isolated ecosystems are being influenced by human
  actives