PowerPoints prepared by

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PowerPoints prepared by Brian L. Delahaye,
Queensland University of Technology, Tony
Delahaye
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CHAPTER 7 INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• INTERVIEWING

• THE FOCUS GROUP

• ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

• THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

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CHAPTER 7 INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Interviews and focus groups are qualitative
research methods. The data gathered with these
methods have to be an accurate representation of
the phenomenon being investigated. Further, the
research should be able to be replicated.
While accuracy and replicability are ideals, and
difficult to achieve fully, the good investigator
attempts to come as close as possible to this
utopian state.
This is achieved by considering a number of
research options and through sampling.
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RESEARCH OPTIONS
The researcher should consider the following
options

• trustworthiness

• verification and triangulation

• acknowledging subjectivity and bias

• process and sequence

• interpretation

• referential adequacy

• paint the path

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SAMPLING
Gathering data from entire populations is usually
too costly and therefore a representative sample
is taken. There are various types of sampling
designs

• simple random sampling

• systematic sampling

• stratified random sampling

• convenience sampling

• purposive sampling

• convergence sampling

• snowball sampling.

The above list moves from probability to
non-probability sampling. Each has its advantages
and disadvantages.
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CHAPTER 7 INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS
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INTERVIEWING
Successful interviewing is the result of the
complex interaction of high-level skills, empathy
and understanding of others and an abundant
curiosity. Key interviewing skills include

• the pattern of the interview

• listening

• questioning

• paraphrasing

• probing

• summarising

• non-verbal behaviour.

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THE PATTERN OF THE INTERVIEW
A well-patterned interview removes communication
barriers and encourages the flow of information.
A typical pattern of a good interview is shown in
Figure 7.1 on page 179 of the textbook. There are
four stages.
which includes a ritual,
Stage 1 Entrance investment time,
a pass time, explaining reasons for the
interview, stating the rules, previewing and
activity no.1.
where the interviewer uses the skills of
Stage 2 Activity no.2,
questioning, paraphrasing and probing.
where complexity, uncertainty and
Stage 3 Intimacy,
emotions are encountered.
which allows the interviewee
Stage 4 Exit investment time,
to prepare to return to the outside world and
includes final comments, a summary, future
actions, final questions, pass time and a ritual.
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THE PATTERN OF THE INTERVIEW
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LISTENING
Listening is THE most important skill of the
interviewer. There are two levels of listening

• listening to the substance of what the
  interviewee is saying

• listening for the unstated message.

Further, the interviewer must be comfortable with
silence and withstand the inclination to rush in
and contaminate the outcome.
It should always be remembered that the
interviewees answers are the raw data for the
investigation.
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QUESTIONING
There are two types of questions

• Open questions have a stem-plus-query structure
  and allow the interviewee a wide choice of
  possible answers.
• I am interested in the concerns you may have
  about the new financial system. Would you tell me
  about some of these concerns, please?

• Closed questions are used to identify explicit
  facts.
• How many customers have complained?

In an interview the first question on a topic is
called a primary question and the other questions
secondary questions. A question sequence usually
starts with an open question, followed by a less
open question, followed by a fairly closed
question and then a closed question. This is
called a funnel sequence.
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PARAPHRASING
From the interviewees perspective, the most
important part of the interview are the answers.
The interviewee is often concerned whether the
message is being heard and if it is being
interpreted correctly.
To help the interviewee, the interviewer
paraphrases the answer back to the interviewer.
In paraphrasing, the interviewer repeats back to
the interviewee, in a concise form, the essential
message of the interviewees reply.
A special form of paraphrasing is reflection of
feelings.
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PROBING
Probing combines the funnel sequence of
questioning with paraphrasing and allows the
interviewer to delve into the memories of the
interviewee.
For an example of probing, see A closer look
7.1 onpage 185 of the textbook.
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SUMMARISING
A summary is a restatement of ideas, facts,
themes and/or feelings the interviewee has
expressed. A summary usually occurs at the end of
a section of an interview before going on to a
new topic.
An example of summarising is shown in A closer
look 7.2 on page 186 of the textbook.
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NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR
Interviewers need to be aware of their own
non-verbal behaviour as well as that of the
interviewee. A robust model for checking
nonverbal behaviour is the SOLER model.

• quare on

(S)

• pen posture

(O)

• ean forward

(L)

• yes

(E)
(R)

• elax

The interviewer can check the interviewees
non-verbal behaviours to see if they are in the
rapport zone as well as checking their own
behaviour.
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STRUCTURED vsUNSTRUCTURED
Interviews can be considered as highly structured
or highly unstructured.
An unstructured interview commences with a broad,
open question and then relies on the interview
skill of probing to manage the process and the
direction of the interview. These interviews
require a very experienced interviewer.
Structured interviews use standardised,
pre-prepared questions that are carefully worded
and ordered. These questions are usually based on
previously gathered information. These interviews
do not necessarily needan experienced
interviewer.
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THE THREE LEVELS
The interviewer operates on three levels.
The content level is where the interviewer
listens to, and records, the information.
The process level is where the interviewer uses
the skills of questioning, paraphrasing, probing
and attending to control the direction of the
interview.
The executive level is where the interviewer
controls the time and is aware of other issues
such as the interviewees energy levels.
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CHAPTER 7 INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS
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THE FOCUS GROUP
The focus group collects data through group
interaction with a number of respondents
simultaneously. There are a number of
similarities with an interview. The facilitator
operates at the same three levels content,
process and executive and uses the same six
factors the overall pattern, listening,
questioning, paraphrases, probes, and uses
non-verbal.
There are four other factors to be considered
Structured and unstructured focus groups
Logistics
Group composition
Conducting the focus group.
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STRUCTURED vs UNSTRUCTURED
In a similar fashion to the interview, a decision
has to be made on whether the focus group will be
structured or unstructured.
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LOGISTICS
A focus group brings together a number of people,
at a common time, in a relatively large space
that is comfortable, quiet and free from
interruptions. Associated equipment such a
chairs, tables, video equipment, visual aids and
writing material is usually needed.
This takes quite a deal of planning!
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GROUP COMPOSITION
The investigator has to give careful
consideration to the membership of the groups,
including

• homogeneity

• representation

• strangers vs acquaintances

• size of group.

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CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP
There are five considerations that need attention
Facilitator team
Recording
Use of visual aids
Thinking time
Group dynamics
The facilitator must be aware of the task roles
and relationship roles that occur within a group
(see Table 7.1 on page 194 and Table 7.2 on page
195 of the textbook).
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CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP
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CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP
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CHAPTER 7 INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS
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ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA
The overall purpose of analysing qualitative data
is to identify the themes and sub-themes in the
raw data which will provide an understanding of
the issue, opportunity or problem being
investigated. Themes can be identified in two
ways
by using the pre-planned questions as themes for
the analysis. This is usually only an option in
the structured interviews and focus groups.
by using content analysis.
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CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis is the process of identifying,
coding and categorising the primary patterns in
the qualitative data.
Read through notes and other evidence.
Code themes as they surface. Highlight the full
passage containing the theme.
When a second theme is found, compare it with the
first, and so on. If it is different, start a new
code.
Maintain a list of the abbreviations of the main
themes identified.
At reasonable intervals, transfer the indicated
passages to a file. This transferring classifies
the data into specific categories.
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CONTENT ANALYSIS
Steps 1 to 5 are called open coding the first
pass through the raw data.
The second reading of the raw data is for axial
coding to look for new ideas to review and
examine initial codes and themes to look for
causes and consequences.
In the third reading, selective coding occurs
looking for evidence that illustrates or
justifies identified codes and making
comparisons and contrasts between themes and
sub-themes.
Write the report.
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ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA (Continued)
Six important comments can be made about
analysing qualitative data
It is a messy process.
There are two levels of data. The manifest data
is the data that is physically present and
accountable. The latent data is the symbolism
underlying the physical data.
The decisions are yours.
Computer programs (e.g. NVIVO) can be used.
Gathering data, analysing data and writing the
report are not mutually exclusive.
The best instrument to analyse qualitative data
is the human brain.
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CHAPTER 7 INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS
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THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING
The HRDNI is the beginning of the learning
process for the individual and the organisation.
This is particularly so with the qualitative
research methods. The interaction between the
investigator and the participants is the epitome
of communicative learning.
In addition, both parties are involved in the
knowledge creating processes of externalisation
and internalisation.
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