LEL 1

1
LEL 1

• Syntax 7 Auxiliaries in English and sentence
  structure

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Outline

• Sentences cannot always be equated with VPs.
  Sentences with an auxiliary verb must contain
  more structure.
• Auxiliary verbs and main verbs in English are in
  different positions in the sentence structure.
• Embedded clauses must contain even more
  structure.
• Main clauses in which the finite verb precedes
  the subject must contain the same amount of
  structure as embedded clauses.

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Sentence structure revisited

• Recap It is possible to analyse simple sentences
  like Jane saw Mary or The man read a book as VPs.
  
• In accordance with X-bar theory, V is the head of
  the sentence in that case, the subject is the
  specifier of the VP and the object is the
  complement.
• VP ( S)
• Subj V
• V Obj

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Sentences with an auxiliary verb

• Can sentences with an auxiliary verb be analysed
  just as VPs as well?
• Pauline can sing the most difficult songs.
• The doctor will see the patient tomorrow.
• The weather may turn bad.
• Gerald has read that book seven times.
• They could if the auxiliary and the main verb
  formed one complex verb together, a compound.
• But that is extremely unlikely.

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Why main verb and auxiliary do not form a compound

• Main verb and auxiliary can be split by other
  syntactic material
• Can Pauline sing that song properly?
• The doctor will probably not see the patient
  tomorrow.
• A true Verb-Verb compound such as stir-fry can
  never be split in this way
• Stir will Pauline fry those vegetables.
• Pauline fried the vegetables stir again.

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Why main verb and auxiliary do not form a
compound (contd)

• In an auxiliary verb main verb sequence, it is
  the left-hand verb (the auxiliary) that can be
  inflected for tense
• Pauline has to sing those songs.
• Pauline to have sings those songs.
• The patient is seen by the doctor.
• The patient been sees by the doctor.
• In a Verb-Verb compound, it is the right-hand
  verb that can be inflected for tense
• Pauline stir-fried the vegetables yesterday.
• Pauline stirred-fry the vegetables yesterday.
• She stir-fries too much for my liking.
• She stirs-fry too much for my liking.

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Properties of English modal auxiliaries

• An analysis for sentences with auxiliaries
  suggests itself when we look more closely at some
  of the properties of English modal auxiliaries in
  particular.
• First, modals can only appear in forms carrying
  finite inflection. They do not occur as
  non-tensed forms, such as infinitives, past
  participles or present participles.
• To can build a house is a great asset.
• The sun seems to will shine.
• Paul has never could do such a thing.
• Johns maying to go to America is surprising.

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Properties of English modal auxiliaries (contd)

• A second property of English modals is that they
  must occupy a position in the sentence that is
  somewhat further to the left than the position
  occupied by main verbs.
• Iris will paint the door.
• Iris will not paint the door.
• Iris not will paint the door
• Iris paints not the door.
• Iris does not paint the door.
• Arthur could quickly open the tin.
• Arthur opened quickly the tin.
• Arthur quickly opened the tin

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The I-position and the IP

• On the basis of these properties of modals, let
  us assume that sentences with a finite auxiliary
  contain an extra position to the left of the VP
  the Infl-position, commonly abbreviated to
  I-position.
• In accordance with the X-bar theory for phrase
  structure, this position is the head of an Infl
  Phrase, commonly abbreviated to IP. The VP is in
  the complement position of this IP.
• IP
• spec I
• I VP
• spec V
• V compl

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Subject movement

• If sentences are IPs, and finite auxiliaries are
  in the I-position, then the subject in English
  must be in the specifier position of the IP, as
  it usually precedes the finite auxiliary
• Iris will not paint the door.
• Arthur could quickly open the tin.
• But semantically speaking, the subject appears to
  act as the specifier of the Verb Phrase it
  expresses the element that the Verb Phrase
  predicate says something about.
• So there is a paradox the subject appears in the
  specifier of the IP, but it is interpreted as the
  specifier-of-the-VP.

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Subject movement (contd)

• Paradox the subject appears in the specifier of
  the IP, but it is interpreted as the
  specifier-of-the-VP.
• Why not have our cake and eat it as well? Lets
  claim that there are actually two instances of
  the subject in a sentence, one in spec-IP and one
  in spec-VP. The only difference between the two
  instances is that the first one is pronounced,
  while the second one is not.
• Another way of describing this situation is to
  say that the subject moves from spec-VP to
  spec-IP, and that such movement leaves a trace
  which is identical to the moved element except
  for being silent.

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The full IP

• Thus, the full structure of a sentence like Iris
  will paint the door is as follows, where tIris
  stands for the trace of Iris.
• IP
• NP I
• Iris
• I VP
• will
• tIris V
• V NP
• paint the door

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Wheres the verb?

• If finite auxiliaries are in the I-position, not
  the V-position, then what about sentences without
  an auxiliary, where the main verb is finite? Is
  this in the I-position, then?
• Not in English. In English, main verbs always
  remain in the V-position, even when they are
  finite
• Mary will often read a book in the evening.
  will in I
• Mary reads often a book in the morning.
  reads in I
• Mary often reads a book in the morning. reads
  in V

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Do-support

• In English, in sentences containing the negator
  not the I-position must be filled.
• The reluctance of main verbs to go into the
  I-position is so strong that, if there is no
  other auxiliary in a negated sentence, a dummy
  auxiliary is used to fill up the I-position.
• Mary has not read a book this morning. auxiliary
  verb in I
• Mary reads not a book in the morning. main
  verb in I
• Mary does not read a book in the morning. dummy
  do in I

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V-to-I movement in French

• French looks like English in having finite
  auxiliaries in the I-position and non-finite main
  verbs in the V-position
• Jean a souvent donné ses livres à Marie.
• John has often given his books to Mary
• John has often given his books to Mary.
• But in sentences without an auxiliary in French,
  the main verb does go into the I-position
• Jean donne souvent ses livres à Marie.
• John gives often his books to Mary
• John often gives his books to Mary.
• Jean souvent donne ses livres à Marie.

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More than one auxiliary

• Sentences can contain more than one auxiliary
  verb
• Mary has been working.
• Jane has been overlooked.
• Garry will be cycling.
• I could have cried.
• This will have to be considered.
• John should have been working.
• His resignation might have been accepted.
• The tramline was to have been completed years ago.

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More than one auxiliary (contd)

• For sentences with more than one auxiliary, we
  will assume that there is VP-recursion below the
  IP, as there is no clear evidence that non-finite
  auxiliaries occur in a distinct clausal position
  such as the I-position.
• Mary has not been seen for a while.
• Mary has been not seen for a while.
• Garry will not be cycling to Birmingham.
• Garry will be not cycling to Birmingham.

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Complementizers

• Embedded clauses can be introduced by a word that
  links them to the main clause a complementizer.
• Thomas knew that Betty would never go to Peru.
• Corinne asked if she could stay in Argentina a
  bit longer.
• Stella did not know what to make of the film
  since she had not
• read the book.
• To accommodate complementizers in a sentences
  structure, we need another head position in front
  of the entire IP the C-position.
• In accordance with X-bar theory, C is the head of
  a phrase CP that contains a specifier position
  and a complement position. The complement
  position contains the IP.

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The full CP

• CP
• spec C
• C IP
• spec I
• I VP
• spec V
• V compl

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Subject-verb inversion

• In English interrogative sentences (questions),
  the finite verb must appear in front of the
  subject (unless the subject itself is
  questioned).
• Deborah has finished her work already.
• Has Deborah finished her work already?
• Paul will read the newspaper tonight.
• Will Paul read the newspaper tonight?
• Two hypotheses possible
• The subject is lower in interrogatives than in
  declaratives.
• The finite verb is higher in interrogatives than
  in declaratives.

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Subject-verb inversion (contd)

• Hypothesis A The subject is lower in
  interrogatives.
• Perhaps the subject stays in spec-VP in
  questions, rather than moving to spec-IP?
• No the subject still precedes those elements
  that appear in between the I-position and the VP,
  such as often
• Has John often done that?
• Has often John done that?

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Subject-verb inversion (contd)

• Hypothesis B the finite verb is higher in
  interrogatives.
• In declaratives the finite auxiliary is in I.
  Which higher position is available for the finite
  auxiliary in interrogatives?
• Answer the finite verb is in C in
  interrogatives!
• Bonus of this assumption it explains why there
  is never subject-verb inversion, even in
  interrogative clauses, if a complementizer
  already occupies C.
• I wonder if Deborah has finished her work
  already.
• I wonder if has Deborah finished her work
  already.

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Do-support in interrogatives

• We have seen that
• The finite verb in interrogative clauses (without
  a complementizer) must go into the C-position.
• Main verbs in English never leave the V-position.
• Given this it is no surprise that in
  interrogatives without an auxiliary, dummy do
  appears again, this time to fill up the
  C-position
• Frances likes sticky toffee pudding best.
• Likes Frances sticky toffee best?
• Does Frances like sticky toffee pudding best?
• Some other languages allow main verbs to appear
  in C
• Fietst Karel vaak langs de gracht? Dutch
• cycles Carl often along the canal
• Does Carl often cycle along the canal?