Behavioral Theories of Learning

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Lecture 3

• Behavioral Theories of Learning

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Chapter 5 Main Contents

• Part1.What is Learning?
• Part2.What behavioral learning theories have
  evolved?
• Pavlov Classical Conditioning
• Thorndike theories of Learning
• Skinner Operant Conditioning
• Principles of behavioral Learning
• Part3 Bandura Social Learning Theory ??Modeling
  and Observational Learning

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• Part 1
• What is leaning

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Case Study P137

• Critical and Creative Thinking
• What have students learnt in the class?
• Have they learnt the behaviors the teacher
  expected?
• Why didnt Ms Esteban accomplish her goal?
• If you are Ms Esteban,what are you going to
  do?Why?

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• Julia Esteban, first-grade teacher at Tanner
  Elementary School, was trying to teach her
  students appropriate classroom behavior.
• "Children," she said one day, "we are having a
  problem in this class that I'd like to discuss
  with you. Whenever I ask a question, many of you
  shout out your answers instead of raising your
  hand and waiting to be called on. Can anyone tell
  me what you should do when I ask the class a
  question?"
• Rebecca's hand shot into the air. "I know, I
  know!" she said. "Raise your hand and wait
  quietly!"
• Ms. Esteban sighed to herself. She tried to
  ignore Rebecca, who was doing exactly what she
  had just been told not to do, but Rebecca was the
  only student with her hand up, and the longer she
  delayed, the more frantically Rebecca waved her
  hand and shouted her answer.
• "All right, Rebecca. What are you supposed to
  do?"
• "We're supposed to raise our hands and wait
  quietly for you to call on us." "If you know the
  role, why were you shouting out your answer
  before I called on you?" "I guess I forgot."
• "All right. Can anyone remind the class of our
  rule about talking out of turn?"
• Four children raised their hands and shouted
  together..
• "One at a time!" "Take turns!"
• "Don't talk when someone else is talking!"
• Ms. Esteban called for order. "You kids are
  going to drive me crazy!" she said. "Didn't we
  just talk about how to raise your hands and wait
  for me to call on you?"
• "But Ms. Esteban," said Stephen without even
  raising his hand. "You called on Rebecca and she
  wasn't quiet!"

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Analysisp138

• Children are excellent learners.
• What they learn, however, may not always be
  what we intend to teach. Ms. Esteban is trying to
  teach students how to behave in class, but by
  paying attention to Rebeccas outburst, she is
  actually teaching them the opposite of what she
  intends. Rebecca craves (expects) her teacher's
  attention, so being called on (even in an
  exasperated (angry) tone of voice) rewards her
  for calling out her answer. Not only does Ms.
  Esteban's response increase the chances that
  Rebecca will call out answers again, but Rebecca
  now serves as a model for her classmates' own
  calling out. What Ms.Esteban says is less
  important than her actual response to her
  students' behaviors.

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What is learning?

• Brainstorm
• When we hear the word learning most of us think
  of studying and school. But learning is not limit
  to School.
• We learning everyday of our lives.
• Given examples of what are learning and what are
  not learning?

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A Definition of Learning

• Learning is usually defined as a change in
  an individual caused by experience

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Understanding

• In the broadest sense, learning occurs when
  experience causes a relatively permanent change
  in an individuals knowledge or behavior.
• Changes simply caused by maturation, such as
  growing taller or turning gray, do not qualify as
  learning.
• Learning takes place in many ways.

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Learning takes place in many ways.

• Video
• it is intentional, or it is unintentional
• It happens in human beings or animals
• It happens in school or out of school
• learning can be good or can be worse

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Learning Theories

• There are two main theories Behavioral learning
  theories and cognitive learning theories.
• Behavioral learning theories Behavioral learning
  theories are explanations of learning that
  emphasize observable changes in behavior.
• (Social learning theories focus on the effects of
  thought on action and action on thought.)
• Cognitive learning theories are explanations of
  learning that focus on mental processes.
• There are two branches of cognitive learning
  theories cognitive structure learning
  theory(???????),information-processing theory of
  learning(???????)?

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• Part2
• What behavioral learning
• theories have evolved?

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Early Explanations of Learning

• 1. One of the earliest explanations of learning
  come from Aristotle (384-322B.C.)
• Pavlovs Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan
  Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist, in the late 1800s
  and early 1900s

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• Aristole (384-322BC)
• Knowledge acquired through experience.
• Four Laws of Association
• Law of similarity(??)
• Law of Contrast(??)
• Law of Contiguity(??)
• Law of Frequency(??)

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Some important concepts

• Unconditioned Stimulus
• A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular
  response.
• Unconditioned Response
• A behavior that is prompted atomically by a
  stimulus.
• Neutral Stimuli
• Stimuli that have no effect on a particular
  response.
• Conditioned Stimulus
• A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a
  particular response after having been paired with
  an unconditioned stimulus.
• Classical Conditioning
• The process of repeatedly associating a
  previously neutral(???) stimulus with an
  unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a
  conditioned response.

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Summary(??)

• 1. Pavlov's emphasis on observation and careful
  measurement and his systematic exploration of
  several aspects of learning helped to advance the
  scientific study of learning.
• 2. Pavlov also left other behavioral theorists
  with significant mysteries, such as the process
  by which neutral stimuli take on meaning.
• 3.Although his findings have few applications to
  classroom instruction, they can help a teacher
  understand many situations, such as when a
  child's anxiety about being among strangers
  gradually develops into a debilitating fear of
  coming to school.

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Learning Guide for next section

• Thorndike, Skinner
• Experiments
• Conclusions
• Explanations
• Applications in Education

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2. Thorndikes theory of learning

• American psychologist and educator, born in
  Williamsburg, Massachusetts, and educated at
  Wesleyan, Harvard, and Columbia universities.
  Thorndike joined the psychology faculty at
  Teachers College of Columbia University in
  1899, where he served as adjunct professor of
  educational psychology from 1901 to 1904 and as
  professor of psychology from 1904 until his
  retirement in 1940. From 1922 to 1940 he also
  was director of the psychology division of the
  Institute of Educational Research at Teachers
  College.

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Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

• Edward Thorndike, an American psychologist
  played major roles in developing learning
  theories. His early work involved cats that he
  placed in problem boxes.
• By using trial-and-error experiments with
  animals, Thorndike formulated his so-called law
  of effectthe more satisfying the result of a
  particular action, the better that action is
  learnedand applied it to the development of
  special teaching techniques for use in the
  classroom. He is particularly known for his
  construction of various intelligence and aptitude
  tests and for his repudiation of the belief that
  such primarily intellectual subjects as languages
  and mathematics discipline the mind.

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Edward
Thorndike played major roles in developing
learning theories. His early work involved cats
that he placed in problem boxes.
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Experiments description

• Thorndikes early work involved cats that he
  placed in problem boxes. To escape from the box
  and reach food outside, the cats had to pull out
  a bolt(??) or perform some other task they had
  to act on their environment. During the
  frenzied(???,???) movements that followed the
  closing of the box, the cats eventually made the
  correct movement to escape, usually by accident.
  After repeating the process many times, the cats
  learned to make the correct response almost
  immediately

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Thorndike's learning theory can be summarized as
follows

• 1
• The law of effect(???) - responses followed by a
  reward will strengthen the response
• The law of readiness (???)- chaining a discrete
  responses to achieve a goal
• The law of exercise (???)- associations are
  strengthened with practice, weakened without it,
  and can be diminished with failure or punishment.

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For these experiments

• 2
• Thorndike explained what was learning . He viewed
  that learning was the linkage between stimulus
  and response. The learning occurred when stimuli
  prompt response (stimuli-response theory ,S-R
  theory).

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3. Skinners Operant Conditioning

• American psychologist
• B. F.Skinner became famous for his
  pioneering research on learning and behavior.
  During his 60-year career, Skinner discovered
  important principles of operant conditioning, a
  type of learning that involves
  reinforcement and punishment. A strict
  behaviorist, Skinner believed that operant
  conditioning could explain even the most complex
  of human behaviors.

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Skinners experiments

• Skinner is famous for his development and use of
  a device(??) that is commonly referred to as the
  Skinner box. Skinner boxes contain a very simple
  apparatus(??,??) for studying the behavior of
  animals, usually rats and pigeons.
• A Skinner box for rats would consist of a bar
  that is easy for the rat to press, a food
  dispenser(???) that could give the rat a
  pellet(??) of food, and a water dispenser. The
  rat could not see or hear anything outside of the
  box, so all stimuli would be controlled by the
  experimenter.

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Based on Skinners experiment

• He established the operant conditioning.
• Operant Conditioning is the use of pleasant or
  unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence
  of behavior.

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Creative Thinking and Discuss in groups

• Compare the contributions of Pavlov, Thorndike
  and Skinner s view of learning. What are the
  difference among them?

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• CONSEQUENCE EFFECT
• Behaviors Reinforcer Strengthened or
  repeated behavior

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4. Principles of behavioral Learning

• consequences(??),
• reinforcers(???),
• punishers(??),
• immediacy of consequences(??????),
• shaping(??),
• extinction(??),
• schedules of reinforcement(?????),
• maintenance(??),
• and the role of antecedents(???????).

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consequences(??)

• The role of Consequences
• behavior changes according to its immediate
  consequences. Pleasurable consequences strengthen
  behavior unpleasant consequences weaken it.
• Types of Consequences
• Pleasurable consequences and Unpleasant
  consequences

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reinforcers(???)

• positive reinforer and negative reinforcer
• Primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers
• Intrinsic(???) and Extrinsic(???) reinforcers

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Ways of reinforcer

• general principle of reinforcer
• Ways
• 1. Self-reinforcement
• 2. Praise
• 3. Attention
• 4. Grades and recognition
• 5. Home-based reinforcement
• 6. Activity reinforcers.
• 7. Tangible(???,???) reinforcers

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Theory into practice

• 1. Application of reinforcers------Premack
  Principle
• 2.Classroom uses of reinforcement
• (1)Decide what behaviors you want from students,
  and reinforce these behaviors when they occur.
• (2)Tell students what behaviors you want when
  they exhibit the desired behaviors and you
  reinforce them, tell them why.
• (3) Reinforce appropriate behavior as soon as
  possible after it occurs.
• (4)to use the least elaborate(?????,) or
  tangible(???) reinforcer

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Punishers

• Unpleasant Consequences that weaken behavior are
  called punishers.
• (Thinking if an unpleasant consequence cant
  weeken behavior ,is it a punisher?)

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Punishers

• Punishment can take two primary forms
• PRESENTATION PUNISHMENT(????)
• REMOVAL PUNISHMENT(?????)

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Immediacy of Consequences

• Consequences that follow behaviors closely in
  time affect behavior far more than delayed
  consequences do.

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Shaping

• Shaping is an important tool in classroom
  instruction ?
• What is Shaping???
• Case study

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• Example on page151 ,4thP
• we want students to be able to write paragraphs
  with a topic sentence, three supporting details,
  and a concluding sentence. This task has many
  parts being able to recognize and then produce
  topic sentences, supporting details, and
  concluding sentences being able to write
  complete sentences using capitalization,
  punctuation, and grammar correctly and being
  able to spell. If a teacher taught a lesson on
  all these skills, asked students to write
  paragraphs, and then scored them on content,
  grammar, punctuation, and spelling, most students
  would fail and would probably learn little from
  the exercise. Instead, the teacher might teach
  the skills step by step, gradually shaping the
  final skill. Students might be taught how to
  write first topic sentences, then supporting
  details, then concluding sentences. Early on,
  they might be held responsible only for paragraph
  content. Later, the requirement for reinforcement
  might be increased to include grammar and
  punctuation. Finally, spelling might be added as
  a criterion for success. At each stage, students
  would have a good chance to be reinforced,
  because the criterion for reinforcement would be
  within their grasp. The principle here is that
  students should be reinforced for behaviors that
  are within their current capabilities but that
  also stretch them toward new skills.

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Shaping(??)

• When teachers guide students toward goals by
  reinforcing the many steps that lead to success,
  they are using a technique called shaping.

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Extinction

• The weakening and eventual elimination of a
  learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn is
  called extinction.
• (give some examples from your experience).

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• P155
• This term refers to the frequency with which
  reinforcers are given, the amount of time that
  elapses(??,??) between opportunities for
  reinforcement, and the predictability of
  reinforcement(??????????????????????????????????).
  

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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement Schedule Presenting a
  reinforce after every appropriate response.
• Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule Presenting a
  reinforcer after some but not all responses.
• Interval Schedule Reinforcement based on the
  length of time between refnforcers
• Ratio Schedule Reinforcement based on the
  number responses between reinforcers
• Fixed-interval Schedule Reinforcement
  Schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded
  following a constant amount of time
• Variable-interval Schedule Reinforcement
  Schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded
  following an unpredictable amount of time.
• Fixed- Ratio Schedule Reinforcement Schedule
  in which desired behavior is rewarded following a
  fixed number of behaviors.
• Variable-Ratio Schedule Reinforcement schedule
  in which desired behavior is rewarded following
  an unpredictable number of behaviors

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Self learning

• SCHEDULE DEFINITION EXAMPLE RESPONSE
  PATTERN

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Maintenance(??)

• Maintenance means the continuation of behavior.

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Antecedents (????)and Behavior Change

• We have seen that the consequences of behavior
  strongly influence behavior. Yet it is not only
  what follows a behavior that has influence.
• The stimuli that precede a behavior also play an
  important role.

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Antecedents (????)and Behavior Change

• CUEING
• Cueing, by definition, is the act of providing
  an antecedent stimulus just before a particular
  behavior is to take place.
• The cues must be discriminative .So we can
  provide an additional cue called prompt .

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• Part3
• Bandura Social Learning Theory ---Modeling
  and Observational Learning

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Main contents of Social Learning Theory

• Modeling and Observational Learning(???????)
• VICARIOUS LEARNING(?????)
• SELF REGULATED LEARNING(??????
• SELF-REINFORCEMENT(????)

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The experiments

• One of the classic experiments in social learning
  theory is a study done by Bandura (1965).
  Children were shown one of three films. In all
  three, an adult modeled aggressive behavior. In
  one film the model was severely punished. In
  another the model was praised and given
  treats(??). In a third the model was given no
  consequences. After viewing one of the films, the
  children were observed playing with toys. The
  children who had seen the model punished engaged
  in significantly fewer aggressive acts in their
  own play than did the children who had seen the
  model rewarded or had viewed the no-consequences
  film.

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Modeling and Observational Learning

• Brain storming
• What kinds of behaviors are learnt without the
  effects of consequences?

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four phases of observational learning

• Attentional Phase
• Retention Phase
• Reproduction Phase
• motivational phase

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VICARIOUS LEARNING(?????)

• The experiments
• One of the classic experiments in social
  learning theory is a study done by Bandura
  (1965). Children were shown one of three films.
  In all three, an adult modeled aggressive
  behavior. In one film the model was severely
  punished. In another the model was praised and
  given treats(??) In a third the model was given
  no consequences. After viewing one of the films,
  the children were observed playing with toys. The
  children who had seen the model punished engaged
  in significantly fewer aggressive acts in their
  own play than did the children who had seen the
  model rewarded or had viewed the noconsequences
  film.

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SELF REGULATED LEARNING(??????)

• Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated
  Learning(????????)

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Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated
Learning(????????)

• 1. An adult model performs a task while talking
  to self out loud (cognitive modeling).
• 2. The child performs the same task under the
  direction of the model's instructions
  (overt(???,???), external guidance).
• 3. The child performs the task while instructing
  self aloud (overt self-guidance).
• 4. The child whispers the instructions to self
  as he or she goes through the task (faded, overt
  self-guidance).
• 5. The child performs the task while guiding his
  or her performance via private speech (covert
  self-instruction). (p. 32)

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Example of Self-Regulated Learning

• TASK COMPLETION FORM
• Located material on Martin Luther King Jr.
  in the library
• Read and took notes on material
• Wrote first draft of report
• Checked draft for sense
• Checked draft for mechanics
• Spelling
• Grammar
• Punctuation
• Composed typed or neatly handwritten final
  draft

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Compare to Vygotskian approach

• Both approaches emphasize modeling private speech
  and gradually moving from teacher-controlled to
  student-controlled behaviors

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Advantage of this strategy

• breaking down a complex task into smaller pieces
  encourages students to feel that they are making
  progress toward their larger goal.
• checking off each step allows them to give
  themselves a mental pat on the back that
  reinforces their efforts (Manning Payne, 1996).

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SELF-REINFORCEMENT(????)

• P120
• Information about ones own behavior has often
  been found to change behavior, even when that
  information is self-provided.

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Strengths and Limitations of Behavioral Learning
Theories

• The basic principles of behavioral learning
  theories are as firmly established as any in
  psychology and have been demonstrated under many
  different conditions. These principles are useful
  for explaining much of human behavior they are
  even more useful in changing behavior.
• It is important to recognize, however, that
  behavioral learning theories are limited in
  scope(??). With the exception of social learning
  theorists, behavioral learning theorists focus
  almost exclusively on observable behavior
• Less visible learning processes, such as concept
  formation, learning from text, problem solving,
  and thinking, are difficult to observe directly
  and have therefore been studied less often by
  behavioral learning theorists. These processes
  fall more into the domain of cognitive learning,
• Social learning theory, which is a direct
  outgrowth of behavioral learning theories, helps
  to bridge the gap between the behavioral and
  cognitive perspectives.

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• The end of Chapter 3