Attitudes and Motivation in Language Learning: An Ecological View

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Attitudes and Motivation in Language Learning
An Ecological View

• Martha C. Pennington

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Some Reasons for Wanting to AcquireAdditional
Language Competence

• Travel
• Self-development
• Participating in diversity
• Cross-cultural communication
• Educational access or enhancement
• Higher earning power or better job prospects
• The pursuit of international partnerships and
• opportunities in business

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Focus of an Ecological Approachto Language
Learning

• language as relations between people and the
  world, and on language learning as ways of
  relating more effectively to people and the
  world.
• van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and
  semiotics of language learning A sociocultural
  perspective. Norwell, Mass. Kluwer Academic, p.
  4.

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A Social Sciences View of an Educational Ecology

• seeks to understand the dynamic relations of
  learners and the world, whether it is at a
  macrolevel (e.g. culture, history, or
  socioeconomic status) or at a microlevel (e.g.,
  interactions physical objects, or dialogues)
• allows for broad understandings of cultural,
  historical, social, institutional, and linguistic
  phenomena in the classroom
• recognizes the significance of the context and
  its mediating role for human minds and actions
  and, furthermore, considers development as
  inseparable from the contexts of activities.
• Da Silva Iddings, A. C. and Jang, E.-Y.
  (2008). The mediational role of classroom
  practices during the silent period a new
  immigrant student learning the English language
  in a mainstream classroom. TESOL Quarterly,
  42(4), 567-590 p. 570

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• As a language learner adapts to the exotic
  tones, rhythms, and imagery of a second language,
  gains exposure to the cultural values and
  self-concepts embodied in its words and discourse
  patterns, and comes to understand that the
  language skills which allow a person to
  strengthen ties to one community can weaken bonds
  to another, the learners sense of identity is
  subject to change. How individual learners
  respond to this opportunity (or threat) of change
  may enhance or inhibit their motivation to learn
  the second language.
• Richards, S. (1998). Learning English in
  Hong Kong Making connections between motivation,
  language use, and strategy choice. In M. C.
  Pennington, Language in Hong Kong at centurys
  end, 303-328. Hong Kong Hong Kong University
  Press p. 292.

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Robust Findings About Attitudes and Language
Learning

• Community attitudes that welcome and expect the
  learning of second languages help to minimize the
  effects of individual differences in language
  learning aptitude and language class anxiety that
  can affect learning outcomes.
• Communities which have strong ethnolinguistic
  vitality, i.e. in which their ethnic group and
  their language are well-established and in which
  they do not feel that they are under threat of
  loss of their language or identity, provide a
  social-psychological basis for effective language
  learning.
• Students who are confident and have a high sense
  of their own self-efficacy, that is, a strong
  sense of self-determination and ability to
  succeed, are also those who are successful in
  language learning.
• Individual differences in social attitudes give
  rise to individual differences in motivation,
  which in turn are responsible for variability in
  achievement or outcomes (linguistic and
  non-linguistic)
• Differences in language learning achievement or
  outcomes can in turn affect attitudes and
  motivation.

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English Version of Direct Attitudes Questions

• 1. It is a good thing to have English as the
  main official language of Hong Kong.
• 2. English is the mark of an educated person.
  
• 3. When using English, I do not feel that I am
  Chinese any more.
• 4. If I use English, I will be praised and
  approved of by my family, relatives, and friends.
  
• 5. At times I fear that by using English I will
  become like a foreigner.
• 6. I should not be forced to learn English.
  
• 7. To read English magazines is a kind of
  enjoyment.
• 8. I do not feel awkward when using English.
  
• 9. I love conversing with Westerners in English.
  
• 10.The Cantonese language is superior to English.
  
• 11. I like to see English-speaking films.
  
• 12. If I use English, it means that I am not
  patriotic.
  
• 13. If I use English, my status is raised.
• 14. I feel uncomfortable when hearing one Chinese
  speaking to another in English.
• 15. My history, geography, and mathematics
  textbooks should be written or translated into
  Chinese.
• 16. I wish that I could speak fluent and accurate
  English.
• 17. I feel uneasy and lack confidence when
  speaking English.
• 18. The use of English is one of the most crucial
  factors which has contributed to the success of
  Hong Kong's
• prosperity and development today.

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Language Symbolism

• English outer values (achievement/competi
  tion values) having to do with success,
  stylishness, and academic achievement
• Chinese inner values (family/co-operation
  values) having to do with tradition, home, and
  solidarity
• Pennington, M. C. (1998). Introduction
  Perspectives on language in Hong Kong at
  centurys end. Language in Hong Kong at centurys
  end, 3-40 p. 13.

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What is Motivation?

• Motivation provides the primary impetus
  to embark on learning, and later the driving
  force to sustain the long and often tedious
  learning process.
• Motivation to learn a foreign language
  involves all those attitudes and cognitions
  that initiate language learning, determine
  language choice, and energise the language
  learning process.
• Due to the complex nature of language
  itself it is at the same time a communication
  code, an integral part of the individuals
  identity, and the most important channel of
  social organization L2 motivation is a highly
  eclectic and multifaceted construct, consisting
  of a range of different motives associated with
  certain features of the L2 (e.g. various
  attitudes towards the L2), the language learner
  (e.g. self confidence or need for achievement),
  and the learning situation (e.g. the appraisal of
  the L2 course of the teacher).
• Dörnyei, Z. (2004). Motivation, In Byram,
  M. (ed.), Routledge encyclopedia of language
  teaching and learning, 425-432. London and New
  York Routledge p. 425.

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Types of Motivation

• Instrumental vs. Integrative

• Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic

• Learning
• Achievement
• Stimulation

• Amotivation
• Dörnyei, Z. (2001), Teaching and
  researching motivation. Harlow, UK Longman.
  Vallarand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical
  model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
  Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 29,
  271-360.

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Motivation for Language Learning

• For Learning English
  Type of Motivation
• Higher Earning Power 33
  instrumental
• Better Job Prospects
  28 instrumental
• Travel
  20 communicative
• Emigration 12
  integrative
• Interest
  6 intrinsic
• For Learning Putonghua
• Patriotism
  34 intrinsic
• Communication 27
  communicative
• Higher Earning Power 19
  instrumental
• Better Job Prospects 15
  instrumental
• Emigration 12
  integrative
• Government Post 6
  instrumental
• Wai, S.-w. (1993). English or Mandarin
  On attitudes towards language use and the trend
  of second language learning in Hongkong.
  Dissertation submitted to the Institute of
  Linguist Educational Trust, London. Cited in
  Pierson, H. D. (1998). Societal accommodation to
  English and to Putonghua in Cantonese-speaking
  Hong Kong. In M. C. Pennington, Language in Hong
  Kong at centurys end, 91-111. Hong Kong Hong
  Kong University Press p. 106.

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Main Findings of Lin and Detaramani Study

• The majority of students are highly extrinsically
  motivated to learn English.
• High English attainment (especially listening
  proficiency in social English), intrinsic
  motivation, and perceived self-choice in English
  learning are closely related.
• Extrinsic motivation is no guarantee of high
  English attainment.
• An individual can have both intrinsic and
  extrinsic motivation for learning English, but
  those with the highest English attainment tend to
  be more intrinsically motivated than
  extrinsically motivated.
• Lin, A., and Detaramani, C. (1998). By
  carrot and by rod Extrinsic motivation and
  English attainment of tertiary students in Hong
  Kong. In M. C. Pennington, Language in Hong Kong
  at centurys end, 285-301. Hong Kong Hong Kong
  University Press p. 298.

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An Extrinsic Motivational Cline

• External regulation refers to the least
  self-determined form of extrinsic motivation,
  coming entirely from external sources such as
  rewards or threats (e.g. teachers praise or
  parental confrontation.
• Introjected regulation involves externally
  imposed rules that the student accepts as norms
  to be followed in order not to feel guilty (e.g.
  rules against playing truant).
• Identified regulation occurs when the person
  engages in an activity because he or she highly
  values and identifies with the behaviour, and
  sees its usefulness (e.g. learning a language
  which is necessary to pursue ones hobbies or
  interests).
• Integrated regulation is the most developmentally
  advanced form of extrinsic motivation, involving
  choiceful behaviour that is fully assimilated
  with the individuals other values, needs and
  identity (learning English because its
  proficiency is part of an educated cosmopolitan
  culture one has adopted).
• Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (1985).
  Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in
  human behavior. New York Plenum.
• Cited in Dörnyei, Z. (2001), Teaching and
  researching motivation. Harlow, UK Longman, p.
  28.

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People will be more self-determined in performing
a task to the extent that they experience

• Autonomy (i.e. experiencing oneself as the origin
  of ones behaviour),
• Competence (i.e. feeling efficacious and having a
  sense of accomplishment),
• Relatedness (i.e. feeling close to and connected
  to other individuals).
• Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (1985).
  Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in
  human behavior. New York Plenum.
• Cited in Dörnyei, Z. (2001), Teaching and
  researching motivation. Harlow, UK Longman, p.
  29.

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Determinants of the Expectancy of Successin an
Educational Setting

• Attribution processing ones past experience
• Self-efficacy judging ones own abilities and
  
• competence
• Self-esteem attempting to maintain ones
  self
• worth
• Adapted from Dörnyei, Z. (2001), Teaching
  and researching motivation. Harlow, UK
  Longman, pp. 20-21.

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Ways to Raise Learners Sense of Self-Efficacy

• Successful previous performance
• Vicarious learning (scaffolding, observing
  models)
• Verbal encouragement and praise by others
• Reducing anxiety and stress
• Adapted from Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived
  self-efficacy in cognitive development and
  functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28,
  117-148.

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How Do Goals Affect Performance?

• They direct attention and effort towards
  goal-relevant activities at the expense of
  actions that are not relevant.
• They regulate effort expenditure in that people
  adjust their effort to the difficulty level
  required by the task.
• They encourage persistence until the goal is
  accomplished.
• They promote the search for relevant action plans
  or task strategies.
• Dörnyei, Z. (2001), Teaching and
  researching motivation. Harlow, UK Longman, p.
  26.

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Ways Language Teachers Can Contribute to
Students Positive Motivation

• Enhancing learner autonomy and freedom of choice
• Enhancing students feelings of competence,
  self-efficacy and self-esteem by providing aid
  and scaffolding for tasks so they can perform
  them and by valuing their work and contributions
  to class
• Providing social support in terms of group
  activities and facilitation
• Setting challenging and specific goals
• Providing opportunities for intrinsic motivation
  by learning, achievement, and stimulation
• Helping them to see the usefulness of learning
  behaviors and to understand how those behaviors
  relate to and fit with their own values, needs,
  and identity, thereby aiding students to regulate
  their own learning and to move from extrinsic
  external regulation to intrinsic internalize
  regulation of their own behavior.

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Ways to Increase Language Teachers Motivation
and Commitment

• Variable work requiring creative responses and
  problem-solving
• Large, complex tasks
• Performance of work geared to achieve major,
  central results
• Self-controlled work
• Self-managed individualized growth plan
• Self-designed action research to assess and
  change performance
• Two-way lateral feedback in group reflection,
  problem-solving, and idea-sharing
• Adapted from Pennington, M. C. (1992b).
  Motivating English language teachers through job
  enrichment. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 5,
  199-218 p. 209, Table 1.

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Some Questions Relating to Attitudes and
Motivationin Language Learning and Teaching in
the Hong Kong Context

• Variable work requiring creative responses and
  problem-solving
• Large, complex tasks
• Performance of work geared to achieve major,
  central results
• Self-controlled work
• Self-managed individualized growth plan
• Self-designed action research to assess and
  change performance
• Two-way lateral feedback in group reflection,
  problem-solving, and idea-sharing
• Adapted from Pennington, M. C. (1992b).
  Motivating English language teachers through job
  enrichment. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 5,
  199-218 p. 209, Table 1.

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Some More Questions Relating to Attitudes and
Motivationin Language Learning and Teaching in
the Hong Kong Context

• Are the curriculum and teaching-learning
  expectations for language supported by attitudes
  in the society and those of teachers and
  learners?
• To what extent are languages being taught in a
  way that matches the reasons and motivations Hong
  Kong citizens have for learning them?
• Does the teaching and learning of languages have
  a healthy connection to the teaching and learning
  of other subjects?
• To what extent are the curriculum and teaching
  methods geared to Hong Kong students and the Hong
  Kong educational ecology?
• To what extent are languages being taught in an
  FL vs. a SL orientation?
• To what extent are the Hong Kong language
  curriculum and the teachers of individual classes
  promoting activities to reduce classroom anxiety
  so that students will feel comfortable using a
  language other than Chinese in class?

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Further Questions Relating to Attitudes and
Motivationin Language Learning and Teaching in
the Hong Kong Context

• To what extent are languages being taught in ways
  that motivates learning?
• e.g.
• encouraging choice and self-direction
• helping to build a sense of self-efficacy
• building interest in the language and its
  associated culture
• being task-oriented and goal-oriented
• improving students language learning skills and
  abilities
• Is there a specific emphasis on improving
  students ability and motivation to learn
  languages, such as through enhancing their sense
  of self-efficacy, helping them develop intrinsic
  motivation, and offering practice in a wide range
  of language learning strategies?
• To what extent are language teachers attitudes
  and motivations being addressed in teacher
  education and professional development?