PSY 369: Psycholinguistics

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PSY 369 Psycholinguistics

• Foundations of Language
• Language and animals
• Language and the brain
• Language and thought

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Announcements

• Exam 1 Tuesday, Feb. 7th (1 week from today)
• Coverage
• Chapters 1, 2, 3
• Format
• Multiple choice
• Definition matching
• Short answer

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Evolution of Language

• Where did it come from?
• Difficult question to answer, no fossil record of
  language
• Some evidence that we do have
• Fossil evidence suggests that Brocas area in
  brain has been around a long time (between 2
  million and 300,000 years)
• Articulatory apparatus hasnt changed much in
  last 60,000 years
• Systems of animal communication show some
  features of human language system
• Probably evolved out of other systems of
  communication

For more see Pinker (1994) The Language
Instinct Bickerton (2009) Adams Tongue
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What is communication?

• Any means by which two (or more) individuals
  exchange information
• Paralinguistic techniques non-verbal
  communication
• Hand signals, facial expressions, body language,
  nods, smiles, winks, etc.
• Also includes things like tone of voice, tempo,
  volume, etc.
• Non-linguistic communication - that do involve
  vocalization
• Grunts, groans, snorts, sighs, whimpers, etc.
• Not all produced sounds are intended to convey
  messages, so they arent communication
• e.g., snoring

What about laughing? Clearing ones throat?
5
Some examples

• Animals use a variety of methods to communicate
• Dogs bark
• Birds sing
• Bees dance
• People talk - we use language (as well as other
  methods) for communication

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Features of Language (Hockett, 1960)

• Arbitrariness
• Displacement
• Productivity
• Discreteness
• Semanticity
• Duality of patterning

Hockett (1960) is available for download in the
optional readings on Blackboard
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Arbitrariness

• No resemblance between the language signal and
  the thing that it represents

labrador
dog
hund
perro
chien
Charles Barkey
my pet
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Features of Language

• Arbitrariness
• Displacement
• Productivity
• Discreteness
• Semanticity
• Duality of patterning

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Displacement

• We can communicate about things that are
  physically and temporally removed from us

Did you see what happened in Newts news
conference last week? He got really emotional
and started to cry.
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Features of Language

• Arbitrariness
• Displacement
• Productivity
• Discreteness
• Semanticity
• Duality of patterning

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Productivity

• Our use of language is extremely creative.
• We have a limited amount of linguistic elements
  (e.g., sounds and words), but can combine those
  elements in novel ways.

I was tired of cleaning up after my dog in my
backyard so I taught him to pole vault.

• Even though youve never heard this sentence
  before you can understand it effortlessly

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Features of Language

• Arbitrariness
• Displacement
• Productivity
• Discreteness
• Semanticity
• Duality of patterning

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Discretness

• Language signals are distinct
• I dont change my pitch or volume to denote size
  of an object

dog
dog
dog
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Features of Language

• Arbitrariness
• Displacement
• Productivity
• Discreteness
• Semanticity
• Duality of patterning

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Semanticity

• Language signals have meaning

• Four legged animal
• Common pet
• Fur
• Chases cats
• Barks
• Etc.

dog
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Features of Language

• Arbitrariness
• Displacement
• Productivity
• Discreteness
• Semanticity
• Duality of patterning

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Duality of Patterning

• Language signals occur on two levels

Words and morphemes
Symbols are meaningful, discrete, and arbitrary
dog
Smaller units that make up the meaningful units
dont have meaning
Phonomes
/d/
/o/
/g/
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Animals and language?

• Is language use a uniquely human ability?
• Parrots - can memorize chunks of human speech

Polly wanna cracker

• But are they really producing utterances based on
  an underlying meaning?
• Irene Pepperbergs work with Grey Parrots for
  interesting counterpoint (video another)

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Animals and language?

• Dogs - can learn to associate food or walk
  with particular behaviors

• Is language use a uniquely human ability?

I believe you mentioned something about food

• But is that the same thing as understanding the
  meaning of food and walk?

• In the news Chaser, the dog who knows 1000 words

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Animals and language?

• Birds use songs to serve territorial and
  courtship functions.

• Is language use a uniquely human ability?

Tweet chirp chirp warble warble chirp.
Translation this is my tree

• Can songs be used productively?

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Animals and language?

• Birds use songs to serve territorial and
  courtship functions.

• Is language use a uniquely human ability?

Chirp chirp warble warble tweet chirp?
Translation Is this my tree?

• Can songs be used productively?

Gentner et al (2006)
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Animals and language?

• Is language use a uniquely human ability?

• Honey bees dance to indicate where a source of
  nectar is. (von Frisch, 1954)

• Angle of the dance indicates direction
• Rate of looping indicates distance

NOVA's bee dance page
Another bee dance video
pict
Riley et al. (2005)
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Animals and language?

• Arbitrariness
• Displacement
• Productivity
• Discreteness
• Semanticity
• Duality of patterning

Alex
Chaser
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What about chimpanzees?

• David and Ann Premack taught chimpanzees language
  (others too, Gardners Washoe, Terrace Nim
  Chimpsky)
• Results of these attempts are controversial
• Can learn to associate signs with objects
  (words)?
• Yes, but limited vocabularies
• Some evidence suggesting could distinguish words
  from proper names
• Can they learn syntax?
• Depends who you talk to, some novel combinations
  of signs

Nim Chimpsky
Sarah
Koko
Washoe
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Localization of function

• Josef Galls phrenology
• Mental functions (e.g., intellect, morals, etc.)
  are supported by specific regions of the brain
• You can feel the skull to assess peoples mental
  abilities

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Localization of function

• Modern Neuropsychology
• Psychological functions are localized in
  particular regions of the brain

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Localization of function

• Modern Neuropsychology
• Psychological functions are localized in
  particular regions of the brain
• 4 critical questions (Pulvermüller, 2010)
• Where which brain parts, areas, and eventually
  neurons are active during, and are critical for,
  process P and representations(s) R that P relies
  on?
• When at which point in time in the usage or
  understanding of language does process P occur
  when is representation R activated and processed?
• How which neuronal circuit, which nerve cells
  linked in which way, is the brain basis for
  representation R which spatiotemporal pattern of
  neuronal activation in this circuit does underpin
  the process P?
• Why for what reason are R and P located in these
  specific brain parts and activated at these
  specific points in time, and why is R laid down
  in this specific neuronal circuit, P being
  expressed by these specific activation patterns?

Todays focus
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Location of Language Organ

• Evidence for the localization of language
  facilities comes from
• Patients with language disorders
• Split Brain patients
• Direct Electrical Stimulation
• Modern Imaging Techniques

• Ancient Egyptians Greeks reported speech loss
  after blow to head (brain damage) 3000 years ago
• Paul Broca (1861) found that damage to left
  inferior frontal region (Brocas area) of a
  language impaired patient (Tan), in postmortem
  analysis
• Carl Wernicke (1876) Found that damage to
  posterior part of the temporal lobe caused a
  different kind of language problems.

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Lateralization of functions

• Human body is asymmetrical heart, liver, use of
  limbs, etc.
• Functions of the brain become lateralized
• Each hemisphere specialized for particular ways
  of working

• Left-hemisphere
• Sequential analysis
• Analytical
• Problem solving
• Language
• primarily located in the left hemisphere (97 of
  right handers, 81 lefties)

• Right-hemisphere
• Simultaneous analysis
• Synthetic
• Visual-Spatial skills
• Cognitive maps
• Personal space
• Facial recognition
• Drawing
• Emotional functions
• Recognizing emotions
• Expressing emotions
• Music

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Location of Language Organ

• Evidence for the localization of language
  facilities comes from
• Patients with language disorders

• Dysarthria a motor speech disorder
  characterized by poor articulation
• Apraxia of Speech a motor disorder affecting an
  individuals ability to translate conscious
  speech plans into motor plans
• Agraphia (dysgraphia) - Impairment in writing
• Alexia - disturbances in reading
• Aphasia - is an acquired language disorder in
  which there is an impairment of any language
  modality

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• Most also lost the ability to name persons or
  subjects (anomia)
• Can utter automatic speech (hello)
• Comprehension relatively intact
• Most also have partial paralysis of one side of
  the body (hemiplegia)
• If extensive, not much recovery over time

• Brocas (cortical motor) - slow, effortful
  halting speech, lacking grammatical words

• Me build-ing chairs, no, no cab-in-nets.
  One, saw then, cutting wood working
• Cookie jar fall over chair water empty
  ov ov (Examiner overflow Yeah.

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• Cannot repeat words or sentences
• Unable to understand what they read or hear
• Usually no partial paralysis

• Fluent but empty speech
• But contains many paraphasias
• girl-curl, bread-cake
• Grammatical inflections
• Normal prosody
• Syntactical but empty sentences

• Wernickes (cortical sensory) - fluent prosodic
  speech with little or no real content

• Examiner What kind of work have you done?
  We, the kids, all of us, and I, we were working
  for a long time in the you know its the kind
  of space, I mean place rear to the spedwan
  Examiner Excuse me, but I wanted to know what
  work you have been doing If you had said that,
  we had said that, poomer, near the fortunate,
  forpunate, tampoo, all around the fourth of
  martz. Oh, I get all confused.
• Well, this is mother is away here working, out
  ohere to get her better, but when shes working,
  the two boys looking in the other part. One
  their small tile into her time here. Shes
  working another time because shes getting, too.

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• Intact auditory comprehension
• Fluent (yet paraphasic) speech production
• Poor speech repetition

• Conduction - fluent speech with good
  comprehension but impaired repetition and many
  phonological errors subcortical pathway between
  Brocas and Wernickes areas disrupted

Arcuate Fasciculus
but see Bernal Ardila (2009)
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Location of Language Organ

• Epileptic activity spread from one hemisphere to
  the other thru corpus callosum
• Since 1930, such epileptic treated by severing
  the interhemispheric pathways.
• Left hemisphere could read and verbally
  communicate
• Right hemisphere had small linguistic capacity
  recognize single words
• Vocabulary and grammar capabilities of right is
  far less than left
• Only the processes taking place in the left
  hemisphere could be described verbally

• Evidence for the localization of language
  facilities comes from
• Patients with language disorders
• Split-brain patients

Language Dominant Side
Motor Cortex
Brocas Area
Motor Cortex
Can point to and identify the cat
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Location of Language Organ

• Epileptic activity spread from one hemisphere to
  the other thru corpus callosum
• Since 1930, such epileptic treated by severing
  the interhemispheric pathways.
• Left hemisphere could read and verbally
  communicate
• Right hemisphere had small linguistic capacity
  recognize single words
• Vocabulary and grammar capabilities of right is
  far less than left
• Only the processes taking place in the left
  hemisphere could be described verbally

• Evidence for the localization of language
  facilities comes from
• Patients with language disorders
• Split-brain patients

Language Dominant Side
Motor Cortex
Brocas Area
Motor Cortex
The left hand can point to it, but you cant
describe it!
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Location of Language Organ

• Penfield and Roberts (1959) During epilepsy
  surgery under local anesthesia to locate cortical
  language areas, stimulation of
• Large anterior zone
• stops speech
• Both anterior and posterior temporoparietal
  cortex
• misnaming, impaired imitation of words
• Brocas area
• unable comprehend auditory and visual semantic
  material,
• inability to follow oral commands, point to
  objects, and understand written questions
• Ojemann et al. (1989, 2004)
• Stimulation of the brain of an English-Spanish
  bilingual shows different areas for each language
• Stimulation of inferior premotor frontal cortex
• Arrests speech, impairs all facial movements
• Stimulation of areas in inferior, frontal,
  temporal, parietal cortex
• Impairs sequential facial movements, phoneme
  identification

• Evidence for the localization of language
  facilities comes from
• Patients with language disorders
• Split-brain patients
• Direct electrical stimulation

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Location of Language Organ

• ERP (Event Related Potential)
• Good temporal resolution
• MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
• Good spatial temporal resolution
• PET (Positron Emission Tomolgraphy)
• Radioactive isotope, blood flow, lower
  resolution, can move around (some), relatively
  slow (lots of trials)
• fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance)
• Blood flow, fairly high resolution, poor temporal
  resolution (5-10 s after neuronal activity)

• Evidence for the localization of language
  facilities comes from
• Patients with language disorders
• Split-brain patients
• Direct electrical stimulation
• Modern imaging techniques

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Storing information about words

• In ordinary dictionaries
• an entry for each word
• all the information pertaining to that word is
  given there
• Phonological, graphic, grammatical, semantic
• all together in one place
• In the brain
• The situation is entirely different
• Each word is represented as a large network
• Different kinds of information in different
  locations
• So also each phrase that is learned as a unit

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Storing information about words

• The compact entry (as in ordinary dictionaries)
• All the information is there in one place the
  lexical entry
• Accessing the information
• First, locate (activate) the information
  (requires searching)
• Then read it

Looking for the unitary meaning center binding
meanings and words

1. Epstein (1999)
2. Posner DiGirolamo (1999)
3. Pulvermüller (1999)
4. Salmelin et al (1999)
5. Skrandies (1999)
6. Tranel Damasio (1999)
7. Scott Jonsrude (2003)
8. Hickok Poeppel (2007)
9. Hodges Patterson (2007)

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Why is this interesting?

• Knowledge of how words are represented in the
  brain provides
• the key to understanding linguistic structure
• sheds light on how the brain works in general

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Lanuage and thought

• How are language and thought related?
• Are inner speech and thought the same thing?
• How does language impact thought?
• Are there things that we cant think about
  because our language imposes particular
  constraints?
• Does our language affect how we perceive the
  world?
• Can two people who speak different languages
  communicate?
• The question has been debated for a long time
• And still is today
• New York Times article

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Some history

• Plato Socrates THINKING INNER SPEECH
• Socrates And do you accept my description of the
  process of thinking?
• Theaetetus How do you describe it?
• Socrates As a discourse that the mind carries on
  with itself about any subject it is considering.
  I have a notion that, when the mind is
  thinking, it is simply talking to itself, asking
  questions and answering them. So I should
  describe thinking as a discourse, not aloud to
  someone else, but silently to oneself.

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Some history

• Aristotle SPEECH IS THE SYMBOL OF THOUGHT
• Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience
  and written words are the symbols of spoken
  words. Just as all men have not the same writing,
  so all men have not the same speech sounds but
  the mental experiences, which these directly
  symbolize, are the same for all, as also are
  those things of which our experiences are the
  images.

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Some history

• John B. Watson (1913, early behaviorist)
• thought processes are really motor habits in
  the larynx, improvements, short cuts, changes,
  etc., in these habits are brought about in the
  same way that such changes are produced in other
  motor habits. This view carries with it the
  implication that there are no reflective
  processes (centrally initiated processes).
• But see Smith, Brown, Thomas, and Goodman (1947)
  used curare to temporarily paralyze all
  voluntary muscles, but participant (first author
  Smith) reportedly could still think and solve
  problems

45
Some history

• Vygotsky (Russian developmental psychologist)
• Language and thought have different origins
• Pre-linguistic child thinks independently of
  language
• Words are not symbols for thought, instead are
  properties of objects
• Speech sounds are not thought
• Language is acquired from the childs social
  grouping
• Later speech and thought become connected
• Speech becomes representational
• Childrens monologues are internalized and become
  inner speech

46
Some history

• Franz Boas, father of American Anthropology
• grammatical meaning can only be understood in
  terms of the system of which it is part
• Edward Sapir, student of Boas
• the real world is to a large extent
  unconsciously build up on the language habits of
  the group.
• Benjamin Lee Whorf, student of Sapir (and
  insurance claims adjustor)

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Benjamin Lee Whorf
We cut up and organize the spread and flow of
events as we do largely because, through our
mother tongue, we are parties to an agreement to
do so, not because nature itself is segmented in
exactly that way for all to see.

• Every language is a vast pattern system,
  different from others, in which are culturally
  ordained the forms and categories by which the
  personality not only communicates, but also
  analyzes nature, notices or neglects types of
  relationships and phenomena, channels his
  reasoning, and builds the house of his
  consciousness.

From this fact proceeds what I have called the
linguistic relativity principle, which means,
in informal terms, that users of markedly
different grammars are pointed by their grammars
toward different types of observations and
hence are not equivalent as observers
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Does language affect thought?

• Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• Linguistic determinism
• Language determines thought (memory, perception,
  action)
• Linguistic relativity
• Different languages map onto the world
  differently, resulting in different cognitive
  structures
• Whorf posited that cultural thinking differences
  were the direct result of differences in their
  languages
• Speakers of different languages see the world in
  different, incompatible ways, because their
  languages impose different conceptual structures
  on their experiences.
• Weak version(s) of the hypothesis
• Language influences thinking how we perceive
  the world

7 min video
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The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• What evidence led Whorf to this conclusion?
• The bulk of his evidence was drawn from
  cross-cultural comparisons
• He studied several Native American cultures.
• But he also used examples drawn from his days as
  an insurance investigator

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Does language affect thought?

• Whorfs famous example
• Empty gasoline drums

• Yet the empty drums are perhaps more dangerous
  (in comparison to the full drums), since they
  contain explosive vapor. The word empty is
  used in two linguistic patterns
• (1) as a virtual synonym for null and void,
  negative, inert,
• (2) applied in analysis of physical situations
  without regard to, e.g., vapor, liquid vestiges,
  in the container.
• The situation is named in one pattern (2) and the
  name is then acted out in another (1), this
  being the general formula for the linguistic
  conditioning of behavior into hazardous forms.
  (Whorf, 1956, p. 135)

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Does language affect thought?

• Whorfs famous example
• Empty gasoline drums

• Linguistic form

Container no longer contains intended
contents
Linguistic meanings
Mental interpretations
Nonlinguistic observables
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The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Some of the evidence
• Whorf claimed Inuit have several terms for snow

• Qanuk snowflake
• Qanir to snow
• Qanunge to snow
• Qanugglir to snow
• Kaneq frost

• Kaner be frosty
• Kanevvluk fine snow
• Natquik drifting snow
• Natquigte for snow to drift along the ground
• And more

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The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Some of the evidence
• Whorf claimed Inuit have several terms for snow

• However, there are many different Inuit languages
  and not all posses the same number of terms.
• Boas (1911) reported one group with four root
  terms.
• This number is probably matched or surpassed by
  skiers regardless of their language.
• See Pullums Great Eskimo Hoax (1991)

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The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Specialization based on experience
• Different groups within a culture vary in terms
  of the number of words they use for things
• Consider memory
• Most people are aware of two kinds of memory,
  short term and long term.
• As we discovered previously cognitive
  psychologists have many terms Sensory registers,
  Iconic and echoic, short-term or working or
  primary memory, long-term, verbal and imagistic,
  declarative, procedural, and episodic.
• It would be fair to say that the layman and the
  cognitive psychologist think differently about
  memory.

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Testing the theory

• Two major approaches have been employed to test
  the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
• Test the strong view language determines
  thought by seeing if the cognitive system can
  make distinctions that are not linguistically
  represented
• Test a weaker view that language influences
  thought.
• Two of the domains in which this issue has been
  studied
• Color terms
• Counting and arithmetic
• Others include time/space language grammatical
  categories

56
Cultural Variations

• If your language didnt have separate names for
  these, would you see them the same way?

57
Color Terms

• Much of the initial research focused on an aspect
  of language which varies widely across cultures
• Color Terms
• There are a few languages which have only two
  color terms, and some with three.
• Most languages draw their color names from 11
  specific colors.

58
Color Terms

• Berlin and Kay (1969) Color hierarchy
• Rules Consist of only one morpheme, not
  contained within another color word, not
  restricted to a small number of objects, and
  commonly known
• In 2 color term languages the terms correspond to
  Black White
• In 3 color term languages they correspond to
  Black, White Red
• Languages with additional terms items are added
  as follows yellow, green, blue then brown, then
  purple, pink, orange, and gray.
• This data runs contrary to Whorfs hypotheses
• They suggest a universal physiological basis for
  color naming, independent of language

59
Color Terms

• Brown Lenneberg (1954) So do naming practices
  influence our ability to distinguish or remember
  colors?
• If something in a culture is named frequently it
  may be labeled with a brief name, less frequently
  with a longer name, and infrequently with a
  phrase rather than a single word
• The process of naming in this manner is known as
  codability.
• Codability how easily a concept can be
  described in a language, related to the length of
  the word.
• Asked people to name 24 colors (8 central, 16
  others). Those with longer names were named with
  hesitations and less consistency

60
Color Terms

• Hieder (1972) (Rosch, 1973 same person)
• Dani tribe of New Guinea use only two color names
  
• Mili cool/dark shades (e.g., blue, green,
  black)
• Mola warm/light shades (e.g., red, yellow,
  white)
• They had no difficulty in recognizing color chips
  that were from an initial presentation from among
  distracters even though they had no names for the
  colors.
• Additionally, they were better at recognizing
  focal colors (e.g., the best example of blue)
  than non-focal colors (just as we English
  speakers are)
• This data does not support the strong view of
  Whorfs hypothesis.

Check out ISUs Mind Project Virtual
Anthropology Lab
61
Color Terms

• Comparative judgments among colors are affected
  by color naming practices
• Kay Kempton, (1984)
• Investigated English and Tarahumara
• In Tarahumara there are no separate terms for
  blue and green
• The task was see 3 chips pick the one least
  similar in color
• Some trials had chips English speakers would call
  C1 green, C2 blue and C3 was a focal example of
  green but farther away in light spectrum from C1
  than was the case for C1 vs. C2

62
Color Terms

• Comparative judgments among colors are affected
  by color naming practices
• Kay Kempton, (1984)
• Investigated English and Tarahumara
• In Tarahumara there are no separate terms for
  blue and green
• The task was see 3 chips pick the one least
  similar in color

• Predictions
• Visual stimuli as only basis pick C3 as odd
• Naming practices influence pick C2 as odd
• Results
• Tarahumara speakers pick C3
• English speakers tended to pick the chip they
  would label blue (C2) even though in the spectrum
  it was closer to C1 than was C3
• Support for a weak version of the Whorfian
  hypothesis

63
Color Terms

• Winawer, Boroditsky and others (2007)
• English and Russian divide up blues differently
• Russian makes an obligatory distinction between
  lighter blues (goluboy) and darker blues
  (siniy).
• Results
• Russian speakers were faster to discriminate two
  colors when they fell into different linguistic
  categories (one siniy and the other goluboy) than
  when they were from the same linguistic category
  (both siniy or both goluboy).
• English speakers tested on the identical stimuli
  did not show a category advantage in any of the
  conditions.
• Support for a weak version of the Whorfian
  hypothesis, categories in language affect
  performance on simple perceptual color tasks

64
Color Terms

• Siok, Kay and others (2009)
• fMRI study
• Results
• Lexical color information was accessed in color
  discrimination
• It also enhanced the activation of color region
  V2/3
• Discussion
• Language, by enhancing the activation level of
  the visual cortex, differentially influences the
  discrimination of colors presented in the left
  and right visual hemi-fields.
• Support for a weak version of the Whorfian
  hypothesis, categories in language affect brain
  activation during perceptual color tasks

65
Higher Cognitive Processes

• Color naming may not seem like a very complex
  cognitive process
• What about more complex mental processes?
• Counting and other Arithmetic processes

66
Counting Arithmetic

• Greenberg (1978) has identified some cultures
  where the only number terms correspond to one,
  two, many.
• Piraha tribe Gordon (2004) (in conjunction with
  ISUs Dan Everett)
• Hoi (falling tone one), hoi (rising tone
  two), aibai ( many)
• Matching tasks - show an array of objects, they
  have to put objects down to match the array

• Results - relatively good matching up to 2 or 3,
  but performance was considerably poorer beyond
  that up to 8 to 10 items

• Different languages terms for numbers also has
  effects on arithmetic

67
Counting Arithmetic
Miller Stigler (1987)

• English and French have complex names for numbers
• Japanese,Chinese and Korean have simpler systems

68
From Miller Stigler (1987)
69
Counting Arithmetic
Miller Stigler (1987)

• The greater regularity of number names in
  Chinese, Japanese and Korean as compared to
  English or French facilitates the learning of
  counting behavior beyond 10 in those languages.
• Another advantage is earlier mastery of place
  value (understanding that in 23 there are 2
  tens and 3 ones)

70
Counting Arithmetic
Miller Stigler (1987)
71
(No Transcript)
72
Conclusions

• At this point it is apparent that the strong view
  of Whorfs hypothesis is not supported.

Steven Pinker (The Language Instinct, 1994)
The famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic
determinism is wrong, all wrong. There is no
scientific evidence that languages dramatically
shape their speakers ways of thinking. Most
of the experiments have tested banal weak
versions of the Whorfian hypothesis, namely that
words can have some effect on memory or
categorization. Some of these experiments have
actually worked, but that is hardly surprising.
73
Conclusions

• At this point it is apparent that the strong view
  of Whorfs hypothesis is not supported.

• However, there is continued support for the
  weaker version(s) of the hypothesis
• The data from areas of investigation concerning
  color naming, counting arithmetic, reasoning,
  visual memory, and other areas (e.g., social
  inference) indicate that the use of certain
  specific terms can influence how we think
• The question that remains is how much of the
  differences are because of the language and how
  much due to the culture?
• Problems
• Language cannot be randomly assigned
• Therefore we cannot rule out some third variables
  such as culture.