Corrections Past and Present

1
Section I

• Corrections Past and Present

2
Chapter 1

• History of Corrections

3
Objectives

• Grasp why the concept of punishment has become
  such a major force in the American administration
  of justice.
• Identify the differences between the Auburn and
  Pennsylvania systems.
• Outline the history and trends of prison reform,
  including the significant change in the prison
  environment after World War II and the decline of
  the medical model.

4
Sentencing

• Four predominant sentencing goals in America
• Rehabilitation
• Specific deterrence
• General deterrence
• Punishment
• Fines monetary sanctions as punishment for
  crime
• Restitution compensation to victim or community
  for damages
• Probation supervision that allows an offender
  to remain in the community under certain
  conditions
• Incarceration confinement in a prison or jail

5
Role of Law

• Law social construct members trade some
  restrictions in exchange for benefit from the
  government
• Definition of what is legal and what is illegal
  can change as society changes
• Punishment infliction of a penalty, often with
  a component of retributive suffering

6
Role of Religion

• Evolution of retributive punishment has
  intertwined with that of religion over the years
• Concept of free will has evolved from the
  religious beliefs
• Idea that people chose to violate the law and
  should be held responsible for their actions has
  formed the center focus for American CJ system

7
History of Punishment

• Earliest prisons in America were modeled after
  English gaols
• Severe corporal punishment was commonplace
• All punishment was public
• Bridewells institutions used to confine and
  beat misdemeanor offenders were commonplace

8
History of Punishment (cont.)

• Reformer John Howard noted that more prisoners
  died from sickness and disease than from
  execution
• All inmates were confined together
• England used deportation to send criminals to
  American colonies and later to Australia.
• Penitentiary Act of 1779 provided major reforms
• Secure and sanitary facilities and inspections
• Abolishing fees for basic services
• Introducing reformatory model

9
Punishment in the American Colonies

• Harsh penalties, including death, banishment, and
  corporal punishment
• Jail conditions were as bad as in England
• William Penn passed Great Law to combine reform
  and rehabilitation in Pennsylvania system
• Following Penns death, the state returned to
  corporal and capital punishment

10
Punishment in the American Colonies (cont.)

• Americas first prisons
• Abandoned copper mine in Simsbury, CN
• In 1790, Pennsylvania legislature opened the
  Walnut Street Jail
• Humanitarian approach
• Educational opportunities, religious and health
  care services, prison industries
• Closed in 1835 due to staff turnover
• Concepts of penitence, work, single cells, and
  separation by type of offender became important

11
Punishment in the American Colonies (cont.)

• American Prison Philosophy
• Pennsylvania system was founded on belief of
  solitary reflection and solitary cells
• Silent or separate system prisoners not allowed
  to talk to one another
• Goal was rehabilitation through isolation,
  contemplation, silence, and prayer
• Pervasive idleness led to mental illness

12
Punishment in the American Colonies (cont.)

• American Prison Philosophy (cont.)
• Alternative system was Auburn, or congregate
  system in New York
• Kept in solitary confinement at night, but
  permitted to work collaboratively outside of cell
  during the day
• Expected to maintain total silence
• Designed as industrial factory with small cells

13
Punishment in the American Colonies (cont.)

• American Prison Philosophy
• Principles of economical operation, restricted
  interaction among convicts, congregate work,
  extreme discipline, and tight control
• Chains, beatings, solitary confinement, and
  limited food became instruments of punishment and
  control
• Auburn system emerged as the model adopted by
  most states highly regimented activities and
  fiscally successful due to prisoners work.

14
Punishment in the American Colonies (cont.)

• Regional Differences
• Southern states developed a program where
  citizens could lease prisoners as laborers
• Western settlers built small local jails,
  contracted with other states for housing of
  prisoners, and eventually developed their own
  prison system modeled after the Auburn system.

15
Development of Reformatories

• Overcrowding, poor management, insufficient
  funding, and shifting of resources post-Civil War
  led to end of original models of prison
  management
• Custodial concerns were dominant
• Decision was made to replace prisons with
  reformatories emphasizing educational and
  vocational programming for young adult offenders

16
Development of Reformatories (cont.)

• Alexander Maconochie
• Mark system - prisoners earn freedom through
  marks for industrial work and conformity to rules
• Progress through various stages of increasing
  responsibility
• Walter Crofton
• Stages of imprisonment
• Progression through stages leads an inmate closer
  to release

17
Development of Reformatories (cont.)

• Indeterminate sentencing allowed reformatory
  officials to decide when an inmate was ready to
  be released.
• Benefits were canceled out by overcrowding,
  poorly trained staff, and continued emphasis on
  control
• Reformatory era presented American corrections
  with a new model that included individual
  treatment, indeterminate sentencing,
  classification, parole, and a focus on education

18
Industrial Period and Progressive Era

• Industrial programs offered a structured means of
  establishing a strong work ethic and vocational
  training while offsetting institutional costs
• Different prison industrial systems
• Contract
• Lease
• State-use
• Public works and ways

19
Industrial Period and Progressive Era (cont.)

• Industrial prisons produced a wide range of
  products and were widely accepted
• Labor organizations began to complain
• Hawes-Cooper Act prison made goods were subject
  to the laws of any state where the product would
  be sold
• Ashurst-Sumners Act prohibited interstate
  shipment of prison-made goods

20
Industrial Period and Progressive Era (cont.)

• Reformers continued to propose normalization of
  the institutional setting
• Classification became very important to separate
  inmates by age, aggressiveness, and programmatic
  needs
• Education and vocational training were
  reemphasized
• Federal Bureau of Prisons was created

21
Post-World War II

• In the 1940s and 1950s, inmates were seen as
  misunderstood
• Treatment programs were instituted in many
  prisons
• Inmates were seen as individuals with social,
  intellectual, or emotional deficiencies who
  needed diagnosis and treatment

22
The Medical Model

• Three components
• Diagnosis
• Evaluation
• Treatment
• Proper classification was important
• Wardens and superintendents had a hard time
  accepting this new gentle incarceration

23
The Medical Model (cont.)

• Associations and Federal Guidelines
• APA published manual of standards for prison
  administration
• Congress created LEAA to provide research grants
  and help in development of programs
• Architectural Programs
• Medical model brought architectural restructuring
  with it
• Prisons included educational and vocational
  programs, extensive health care, counseling, and
  prison work industries

24
A Return to Punishment

• Public wanted to toughen system
• Federal courts developed a hands on approach
• Brought prisons in compliance with Bill of Rights
  and Constitution
• Chaos and confusion reigned, especially after the
  riot in Attica

25
A Return to Punishment (cont.)

• Private Family Visiting
• Furlough system allowed inmates to leave prison
  to visit family, seek education, and pursue jobs
• Cut back or eliminated after high-profile case of
  an inmate on furlough attacking a young couple
• Family visiting idea promoted conjugal visits to
  maintain marital ties, but it never gained much
  popularity

26
A Return to Punishment (cont.)

• End of the Medical Model
• Basically vanished by the late 1970s
• Major blow was report by Robert Martinson that
  showed no significant difference in recidivism
  rates for those in rehabilitation programs vs.
  those who did not participate
• Public desire for punishment took the place of
  rehabilitative programs

27
Conclusion

• Evolution of prisons and jail has followed the
  shifting forces at work in the nation
• Some have advocated that prisons work to reform
  criminals
• However, primary focus over time has been custody
  and punishment of offenders
• Fiscal resources have continued to be
  insufficient to meet the needs

28
Chapter 2

• American Jails

29
Objectives

• Identify the size and scope of the local jail
  population in the United States
• Explain the system of health care in American
  jails and issues of mental illness, substance
  abuse, and infectious and communicable diseases
• Comprehend the difficulties associated with
  housing long-term prisoners in local jails.

30
Jail Populations

• Federal, state, and local correctional facilities
  house over 2.3 million persons on a daily basis,
  with 750,000 of those in local jails
• Between 10 and 15 million persons pass through
  jail systems in a calendar year
• Most persons booked into jail remain for short
  periods of time

31
Health Care

• All persons entering jails receive initial
  screening, evaluation, treatment, or
  community-based referral
• Magnitude of health care problems
• HIV/AIDS
• Hepatitis
• Sexually transmitted diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Alcoholism and substance abuse
• Heart disease
• Womens issues

32
Health Care (cont.)

• People often arrive in jail with preexisting
  conditions and little or no relationship to
  community health care programs.
• Jail must triage extant issues, secure emergency
  interventions, and provide referrals to
  community-based health care delivery programs

33
Health Care (cont.)

• Standards of Healthcare Delivery
• Jails must provide constitutional levels of
  health care
• Proactive efforts must be made with respect to
  medication, intake screening, interviews, health
  assessments, sick call procedures, emergency
  services, recordkeeping, etc.
• Standards of correctional health care have
  blended the security responsibilities of access
  to health care with the screening, evaluation,
  and treatment of health care professionals.

34
Health Care (cont.)

• Mental Illness and Substance Abuse
• Jails face increased level of persons with mental
  illness and substance abuse due in part to
  closing of mental health facilities
• Mentally ill prisoners tend to remain in jail
  longer than other prisoners with the same offense
• Jails are generally not appropriate mental health
  treatment environments
• Mentally ill offenders require a tremendous
  amount of resources to ensure treatment services
  are met

35
Health Care (cont.)

• Mental Illness and Substance Abuse (cont.)
• Jail populations would drastically decrease if
  levels of substance abuse decreased in community
• In 2004, 68 of jail inmates nation-wide abused
  or were dependent on drugs or alcohol
• Jails can provide effective short-term
  intervention if they are funded properly

36
Health Care (cont.)

• Co-Occurring Disorders
• Triage uncovers a growing population with
  co-occurring disorders
• Particularly disproportionate numbers of persons
  who are both mentally ill and substance abusers
• Police are often unable to find treatment options
  that offer alternatives to jail

37
Health Care (cont.)

• Occupational Exposure and Communicable Disease
  Safety Measures
• Staff training on universal precautions helps
  alleviate fears regarding diseases
• Dealing with bloodborne and airborne pathogens
  are a routine part of operations
• Variety of communicable diseases found in jails
• Jails must have written exposure control plan

38
Health Care (cont.)

• Occupational Exposure and Communicable Disease
  Safety Measures
• Court orders can compel testing of inmates
  following potential exposure incident
• Requires commitment to training for staff
• Following safety measures and ensuring both
  training and proper equipment will dramatically
  minimize the potential for transmission

39
Victim Notification

• Historically, jails did not become involved in
  affairs of victim
• Victims groups have advocated for release
  hearings and notification of victims prior to
  release, especially in domestic violence
  situations
• Names of those in custody are not kept
  confidential if release of information would
  protect victims

40
Information Technology and Integration

• Historically, human error and poor data entry
  resulted in release of inmates with pending
  warrants or additional charges
• Technologies such as electronic imagery, swift
  fingerprint identification, multiple systems to
  seek identity, etc. have improved this situation
• Still little collaboration and systems
  integration between agencies

41
The Hidden Jail Population

• Thousands of misdemeanant bookings do not occur
  due to insufficient jail space
• Hundreds of thousands of existing warrants are
  not served or citations are given when arrest
  would be more appropriate
• Challenge to sheriffs who are sworn to uphold the
  law, but must turn away prisoners due to a lack
  of space and funds

42
Diversity in Jail Intake

• Linguistic skills and cultural sensitivity are
  extremely important in jail intake process
• Jails must increase staff diversity to deal with
  diverse population of inmates

43
Systems Partnership and the Role of the Community

• Jails should be seen as an integral part of the
  community, as part of community-based service
  networks
• Jails should collaborate with service areas and
  share information on inmates
• Jails must serve as broker of services

44
Growth of Jail Populations

• Most jails keep pretrial offenders, prisoners in
  transit, probation/parole violators, people in
  protective custody, or those serving sentences of
  less than 1 year
• Crowding pressures have resulted in increased
  numbers of jails housing long-term convicted
  inmates sentenced to state or federal prisons
• Jails are not designed for long-term inmates

45
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)

• Reasons for increase in prison/jail populations
• More crime and longer sentences
• Overcrowded state facilities
• Local jurisdictions renting out jail space
• In 2005, jails held about 5 of state and federal
  prisoners

46
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)

• Housing Long-Term Inmates
• Jails lack program and recreational space needed
  by long-term inmates
• Budgets are insufficient to meet their needs
• State laws increasing sentence lengths seem to be
  the main factor in increasing prison crowding

47
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)

• Housing State Inmates
• State officials sometimes allow inmates to back
  up in local jails to relieve overcrowding
• State of Texas faced lawsuits related to
  overcrowding of state inmates in jails, and
  ultimately had to pay millions in reimbursement
  to jails for housing prisoners
• At one time, local jails in New Jersey housed
  over 10 of prison population
• Lawsuits and threats of lawsuits were needed in
  other states to alleviate back up of state
  prisoners in jails

48
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)

• Resolution
• By July 1994, state prison construction relieved
  some of the pressure on counties
• Some jails increased their capacity and rented
  out space to the state or federal governments
• Missouri contracted out with a private
  corrections company, but had to regain control
  following allegations of prisoner abuse

49
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)

• Considerations with Commitments to Other
  Jurisdictions
• When prisoners are serving longer terms, the
  orientation of the detention operation must shift
• Security measures must also be enhanced
• Authorities must insist that counties contracting
  out bed space are providing certain services for
  state inmates

50
Matrix Classification System

• Plan for release of inmates due to overcrowding
  at a jail and prison
• Least dangerous persons should be released first,
  based on an objective, computer-based scoring
  system
• Score based on the nature of the crime
  committed, with additional points for felony
  charges and failure to appear in court

51
Conclusion

• Public administrators and elected officials
  should understand the unique role of the jail and
  its potential in broader public safety
  considerations
• Local jail has increasingly been used to house
  federal and state inmates

52
Chapter 3

• Prison Architecture

53
Objectives

• Understand the limitations of building
  correctional facilities with specific materials
• Distinguish different housing unit models on the
  basis of their architectural characteristics.
• Differentiate among security levels that are
  suitable for various housing units

54
Housing Configuration

• Prison architecture is influenced significantly
  by the operating agencies policies and
  management styles
• Sometimes architecture changes depending on a
  shift toward increased punishment or increased
  rehabilitation
• In recent years, prison architecture has
  reflected classification systems that assess
  inmates behavior

55
Historical Models

• The Bastille
• Linked to a harsh approach to punishment
• Four levels high, continuous stone masonry wall,
  eight cylindrical towers linked together
• Two interior courtyards, crenellated parapet,
  accessible only by drawbridge
• Only design goal was containing masses of people
  and resisting attackers

56
Historical Models (cont.)

• Convict Hulks
• Wooden ships docked in harbors
• Crowded, dirty, infested with insects and
  diseases
• Separated Englands convicts from freedom
  regardless of offense

57
Historical Models (cont.)

• Panopticon
• Two-person cells arranged side-by-side in a
  circular plan in the form of a drum
• Four tiers high supervision tower in the center
• Difficult for officers to move about on the upper
  floors
• Extremely high ambient noise levels

58
Historical Models (cont.)

• Pennsylvania Model
• Eastern Penitentiary in Philadelphia was
  developed based on cellular housing
• Cell buildings arranged in a spoke pattern
• Flanking cells were arranged in a linear plan and
  faced a common central corridor and another row
  of cells on the other side
• Concept led to radiating wing organization for
  large housing units

59
Historical Models (cont.)

• Auburn Model
• Two back-to-back rows of multi-tiered cells
  arranged in a straight, linear plan
• Dominated US prison and jail design in 19th and
  20th centuries
• Over time, electrical, plumbing, and ventilation
  systems were introduced to housing unit design
• Usually accommodated in a continuous space behind
  cells known as a chase

60
Historical Models (cont.)

• Pennsylvania and Auburn Models (cont.)
• Rows of cells can be stacked in tiers accessible
  by stairs
• Cells are organized in the middle of the overall
  space and facing the exterior walls
• Beginning in late 1970s, modern fire and safety
  concerns have influenced correctional
  architecture
• Together, the Auburn and Pennsylvania
  configurations are now known as the
  linear-indirect configuration because both of
  them feature the long, narrow organization and
  can only be effectively supervised by walking
  back and forth

61
Direct Supervision

• Federal BOP developed a housing unit that is
  nearly square
• Large, open central day room space
• Individual cells organized around square
• Correctional officer can see interior space from
  any vantage point
• Cells stack two high
• Known as the direct supervision model
• Encourages inmate-staff communication as well as
  security

62
Supermaximum Security

• BOP operated US Penitentiary on Alcatraz Island
  for 30 years for dangerous inmates
• Was a combination of Auburn and Pennsylvania
  systems
• Cells were high also featured a central dining
  room, outdoor stacked two recreation, industries,
  and staff housing
• California introduced security housing units to
  house the most violent offenders
• Featured single cells, a grille-covered
  recreation yard, and little movement from the
  cell for inmates

63
Supermaximum Security (cont.)

• Administrative maximum institution at US
  Penitentiary in Colorado is the current federal
  supermax facility
• Each cell has its own shower, toilet, and
  lavatory
• Inmates can use a large recreation area between
  units on schedule

64
Other Design Factors

• Housing unit of a prison or jail is the most
  important element of correctional design
• Space is also needed to prepare and serve food,
  run programs, provide medical services, put out
  fires, ensure security, and provide for
  sanitation and maintenance
• Institutions often undergo continuous renovations
• Prisons often employ technology originally
  designed for other buildings
• Architecture needs to contribute to safety and
  health of inmates and staff

65
Conclusion

• Prison design and architecture are driven by
  societal attitudes and directly relate to the
  purpose for which the institution is designed.

66
Chapter 4

• Developing Technology

67
Objectives

• Examine technological developments in the field
  of corrections
• Outline concerns about new technology and
  institutional security
• Grasp implementation techniques to increase the
  acceptance of new technology

68
Development of New Technology

• New technological and automated processes can
  greatly assist staff
• Many military innovations have been adaptable to
  prison and jail settings
• Barrier wire
• Infrared night vision technology
• Identification verification equipment

69
Development of New Technology (cont.)

• Information Management Systems
• Computers monitor many aspects of institutional
  life
• One of the best uses of technology in a
  correctional environment is management of inmate
  data disciplinary records, work assignments,
  educational needs, medical needs
• Law enforcement entities are improving their
  information sharing, and information is also more
  readily available to the public

70
Development of New Technology (cont.)

• Prisoner Identification
• Technology helps update prisoner identification,
  processing, and tracking
• Digital mug shots
• Retina-imaging
• Iris-scanning equipment
• Barcoded wrist bands and electronic bracelets
• PRISM Prison Inmate and Safety Management
  System monitors location of staff and inmates
  with electronic wristbands

71
Development of New Technology (cont.)

• Perimeter Security
• Motion detectors
• Electric fences
• Closed-circuit television cameras
• Perimeter points of ingress and egress, including
  identification cards with magnetic barcodes,
  voice printing and hand geometry readers,
  biometric recognition, heartbeat detectors, x-ray
  screening, etc.

72
Development of New Technology (cont.)

• Inmate Programming
• Inmate programming that teaches about technology
  and computer skills can greatly ease
  reintegration
• Can be done at minimal cost using donated or
  recycled computers

73
Development of New Technology (cont.)

• Medical Services
• Management of inmate medical records is a
  substantial challenge
• Electronic files allow heath care providers to
  focus more on treatment rather than redundant
  histories, lab work, filing
• Advances in digital imaging and data transmission
  have enhanced the provision of medical care by
  allowing for remote diagnosis and treatment of a
  variety of conditions

74
Development of New Technology (cont.)

• Crisis Management
• Less-lethal weapons are now the first level of
  response in crisis situations
• Stun guns
• Flash bang distraction devices
• Gas

75
Development of New Technology (cont.)

• New Construction and Reconstruction
• Pre-finished concrete modules have become widely
  accepted
• Modular buildings have exceptional quality
  control, last longer, require less maintenance,
  and are cheaper and faster to build

76
Security Concerns

• Critical that staff be trained in protecting
  system access and protecting information from 3rd
  party disclosure
• Technology should be secured when not in use by
  authorized persons
• Staff should be trained thoroughly on when and
  how information can be disclosed

77
Security Concerns (cont.)

• Access
• Staff should only be given access to information
  that is required to perform their jobs
• Line staff should not be able to access sensitive
  medical data
• Software systems that store private inmate data
  should include user access controls and secure
  passwords

78
Implementation of Technological Change

• Correctional workers often express ambivalence
  toward new technology and change
• Technology is expensive and often represents a
  departure from the traditional direct supervision
  of inmates
• Staff reluctance to adapt to new procedures
  creates a significant management issue

79
Conclusion

• Corrections-related expenditures have grown
  exponentially
• New technology is important and critical for
  survival
• To meet the demands of the future, correctional
  leaders need to seek new ways of doing business,
  while continuing to operate safe, secure, and
  humane correctional programs