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How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

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Title: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy


1
How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
2
ATP Is Universal Energy Source
  • Photosynthesizers get energy from the sun
  • Consumers get energy from plants or other
    organisms
  • ENERGY is ALWAYS converted to the chemical bond
    energy of ATP
  • Photosynthesis and Respiration are LINKED

3
Photosynthesis
  • Overall reaction
  • 6 CO2 12 H2O ? C6 H12O6 6 O2 6 H2O
  • Often shown as
  • 6 CO2 6 H2O ? C6 H12O6 6 O2

4
Photosynthesis Overview
Sunlight 12 H2O
6 CO2
ATP
ADP P
Light Dependent Reactions
Light-Independent Reactions
NADPH
NADP
6 O2
Glucose-P 6 H2O
Reactions occur in grana of the thylakoid
membrane system
Reactions occur in stroma
5
Overview of Cellular Respiration
  • Glucose 6 O2 ? 6 CO2 6 H2O
  • The overall reaction is exergonic.
  • The energy given off is used to make ATP.

36-38 ATP
6
Breathing
O2
CO2
Lungs
Bloodstream
O2
CO2
Muscle cells carrying out
Cellular Respiration
Glucose ? 6 O2
6 CO2 ? 6 H2O ? 36-38 ATP
  • Breathing and cellular respiration are closely
    related

7
Cellular Respiration and ATP
  • Cellular respiration releases the energy stored
    in glucose in a series of steps
  • The energy released is stored as ATP and released
    as heat
  • Aerobic respiration is 40 efficient
  • Meaning40 of the energy stored in the glucose
    is stored as ATP

8
How Cells Make ATP
  • ATP is made in two ways during cellular
    respiration
  • Substrate level phosphorylation
  • Glycolysis
  • Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
  • Oxidative phosphorylation
  • Electrons transport system and chemiosmosis

9
Substrate-level phosphorylation
ENZYME
ATP is made in an enzyme in a coupled reaction.
Substrate gives energy and phosphate group
(Pi) to ADP and makes ATP.
Substrate
Product
Fig. 9.7
10
  • Oxidative phosphorylation
  • Electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) deliver
    electrons to the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
    on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
  • Electrons are passed from membrane protein to
    protein.
  • Each transfer releases energy and pumps H out
    of the matrix
  • Energy is used to create a chemical gradient
  • Gradient is used to drive ATP synthesis by the
    enzyme ATP synthase

11

Overview of Cellular Respiration
12
Carbohydrate Metabolism
  • The first pathway of carbohydrate metabolism is
    called glycolysis.
  • Glucose is the starting material for glycolysis.
  • Glycolysis reactions occur in the cytoplasm.

13
Glycolysis
  • Step 1 Glucose is converted to
    glucose-6-phosphate in a phosphorylation reaction
  • Reaction is endergonic
  • Reaction requires an input of ATP
  • Step 2 A rearrangement reaction occurs to make
    fructose-6-phosphate

14
Glycolysis
  • Step 3 Another phosphorylation reaction occurs
    to made fructose-1,6-diphosphate
  • Reaction is endergonic
  • Reaction requires an input of ATP
  • Step 4 Fructose-1,6-diphosphate is broken in to
    2 three carbon compounds

15
Glycolysis
  • 5 more steps occur and 2 pyruvate are made
  • These steps release energy and electrons.
  • Energy released is used to make ATP by substrate
    level phosphorylation
  • Electrons are attached to the electron carrier
    NAD to form 2 NADH
  • The NADH deliver electrons and H to the electron
    transport system

16
More on NADH
  • Synthesis of NADH
  • NAD 2 e 2 H ? NADH
  • Is NAD oxidized or reduced in this reaction?

17
Glycolysis
  • Energy requiring steps
  • 2 ATP invested
  • Energy releasing steps
  • 2 NADH formed
  • 4 ATP formed
  • Net yield is 2 ATP and 2 NADH
  • Does NOT require O2
  • Occurs in the cytoplasm

18
Glycolysis Summary
  • Where it occurs
  • First substrate (starting material)
  • End product
  • Also made
  • net gain of ____ ATP (why net?, how made?)
  • _____ NADH (made from?)

19
Glycolysis Summary
  • Where it occurs Cytoplasm
  • First Substrate Glucose (6C)
  • End product 2 Pyruvate (3C)

20
Glycolysis Summary
  • Also made
  • net gain of 2 ATP made by substrate-level
    phosphorylation
  • Pathway requires an input of 2 ATP to start and
    makes a total of 4 ATP
  • 2 NADH each made from NAD ,2e and H

21
Energy Releasing Pathways
  • What happens to the products of glycolysis
    depends upon cell conditions.
  • ? Aerobic conditions
  • Preparatory step and Citric Acid/Krebs cycle
  • Electron transport chain
  • ? Anaerobic conditions
  • Fermentation

22
  • GLYCOLYSIS

OR
ANAEROBIC Conditions No oxygen present Net gain
of 2 ATP
AEROBIC RESPIRATION Oxygen present Net gain of
36-38 ATP
23
  • GLYCOLYSIS

OR
  • AEROBIC
  • RESPIRATION
  • Preparatory step
  • Krebs Cycle
  • Electron Transport Chain
  • Reactions occur in mitochondria
  • ANAEROBIC
  • Fermentation occurs
  • Type depends upon cell type
  • Reactions occur in cytoplasm

24
Pathways of Aerobic Respiration
  • Glycolysis
  • followed by Pyruvate oxidation
  • Citric Acid cycle
  • Also called Krebs Cycle
  • Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Chemiosmosis

25
Aerobic Conditions
  • The first reaction that occurs after glycolysis
    is pyruvate oxidation
  • Also called the Preparatory Step
  • This reaction occurs as the pyruvate enter the
    matrix of the mitochondria

26
Pyruvate Oxidation
  • As the pyruvate enter the mitochondria each has a
    carbon removed and co-enzyme A added
  • Produced in the Prep. Step
  • 2 NADH (go to ETC)
  • 2 CO2 (diffuse out of mitochondria and cell)

27
  • Pyruvate Oxidation

Cytoplasm
------------------------------
------------------------------
Matrix of the mitochondria
28
Aerobic Respiration
  • For each glucose metabolized the Preparatory Step
    makes
  • 2 NADH - go to ETC
  • 2 CO2 - diffuse out of mitochondria and cell
  • 2 Acetyl Co-A - enter into Citric acid cycle
  • aka Krebs cycle

29
Pyruvate Oxidation Summary
  • Where and when it occurs
  • Substrate
  • End Product
  • Also made
  • ___________
  • ___________

30
Pyruvate Oxidation Summary
  • Where and when it occurs Occurs as pyruvate
    enter mitochondria, occurs under aerobic
    conditions
  • Substrate 2 Pyruvate (3C)
  • End Product 2 Acetyl-CoA (2C)
  • Also made
  • 2 CO2
  • 2 NADH

31
Citric Acid Cycle Krebs Cycle
  • Step 1 Each Acetyl-CoA (2C) joins with an
    oxaloacetate (4C) to form a citrate (6C)
  • Rest of the citric acid cycle reactions occur
  • Last reaction produces another oxaloacetate (4C)
    which joins with the next available acetyl-co
    A.
  • ATP, NADH, FADH2, and CO2 are made in these
    reactions.see board

32
CoA
Acetyl CoA
CoA
2 carbons enter cycle
Oxaloacetate
Citrate
?H
NADH
leaves cycle
CO2
NAD
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
NAD
Malate
H
NADH

ADP
P
FADH2
ATP
Alpha-ketoglutarate
FAD
leaves cycle
CO2
Succinate
NAD
?H
NADH
33
(No Transcript)
34
  • In the Krebs cycle, the metabolism of 2 pyruvates
    made from a single glucose produces
  • 2 ATP - by substrate-level phosphorylation
  • 6 NADH - go to ETC
  • 2 FADH2 - go to ETC
  • 4 CO2 - diffuse out of mitochondria and cell

35
Citric Acid Cycle Summary
  • Where it occurs
  • Starting substrates
  • Last product of pathway
  • Also made (in total for 2 acetyl-CoA entering)
  • ____ CO2
  • ____ ATP (method made by?)
  • ____ NADH
  • ____ FADH2

36
Citric Acid Cycle Summary
  • Where it occurs matrix of mitochondria
  • Starting substrates acetyl-CoA, oxaloacetate
  • Last product of pathway oxaloacetate
  • Also made (in total for 2 acetyl-CoA)
  • 4 CO2
  • 2 ATP (by substrate level phophorylation)
  • 6 NADH
  • 2 FADH2

37
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
  • ETC occurs at electron carriers (proteins)
    located on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
  • Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed from one
    electron carrier to the next.
  • Transfers are called red-ox reactions
  • Each transfer releases energy

38
ETC
  • Some of the electron carriers are also proton
    (H) pumps
  • Use the energy released by the red-ox reactions
    (e transfer reactions) to pump H out of the
    matrix.

39
H
H
H
H
H
Protein complex
H
H
Electron carrier
H
ATP synthase
H
Intermembrane space
Inner mitochondrial membrane
FAD
FADH2
Electron flow
1 2

O2
H
2
NADH
NAD
H
Mitochondrial matrix
H
P

ADP
ATP
H
H2O
H
Chemiosmosis
Electron Transport Chain
40
ETC
  • NADH and FADH2 each transfer 2e and H to a
    specific ETS protein
  • Notice -- they do NOT start with the same ETC
    protein
  • In the process are the NADH and FADH2 oxidized or
    reduced?

41
H
H
H
H
H
Protein complex
H
H
Electron carrier
H
ATP synthase
H
Intermembrane space
Inner mitochondrial membrane
FAD
FADH2
Electron flow
1 2

O2
H
2
NADH
NAD
H
H
P

ADP
ATP
H
H2O
Mitochondrial matrix
H
Chemiosmosis
Electron Transport Chain
42
ETC
  • H from the matrix follow the electrons into
    proton pumps
  • At each proton pump the H are pumped out of the
    matrix into the intermembrane space
  • This creates an electrical chemical gradient
  • Form of _________ energy

43
ETC
  • Electron transfers stop when the last ETC protein
    transfers the 2e to oxygen which
  • Joins with H to form water
  • The last electron acceptor is oxygen and water
    forms. (know this)

44
Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthesis
  • .back to the H ions pumped into the
    intermembrane space
  • The potential energy of H gradient is drive ATP
    synthesis at the enzyme ATP synthase

45
ETC and ATP Synthesis
  • The enzyme ATP synthase is embedded in the inner
    membrane of the mitochondria
  • The flow of H through this enzyme releases
    energy and this energy is used to make ATP .

46
Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthesis
  • This method of making ATP is called
  • Oxidative phosphorylation
  • Also referred to as chemiosmosis

47
Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthesis
  • The more H pumped out of the matrix
  • The steeper the gradient
  • the more potential energy
  • the more ATP that can be made by ATP synthase

48
ETC and ATP Synthesis
  • Each NADH made in the mito. results in enough H
    being pumped out of the matrix to make 3 ATP.
  • Each FADH2 results in enough H being pumped out
    of the matrix to make 2 ATP.

49
NADH from Glycolysis
  • The NADH made in glycolysis must enter the matrix
    in order to deliver their electrons to the ETC
  • How they enter the mitochondria depends upon
    the cell type.

50
NADH from Glycolysis
  • In most cells the 2 NADH made in glycolysis pass
    their electrons and H to FAD in the matrix
    making
  • 2 FADH2 -- take the electrons and H to the ETC
    where a total of ____ ATP are made

51
NADH from Glycolysis
  • In liver, heart, and kidney cells the 2 NADH made
    in the cytoplasm pass their electrons and H to
    NAD in the matrix making
  • 2 NADH -- which take the electrons and H to the
    ETC where a total of ____ ATP are made

52
or 2 NADH
53
ATP Synthesis Summary
  • Glycolysis
  • ____ ATP (net) (method?)
  • ____ NADH ? ____ ATP (most cells)
  • Preparatory step
  • ____ ATP
  • _____ NADH ? ____ ATP (method?)

54
ATP Synthesis Summary
  • Krebs Cycle
  • ____ ATP (method?)
  • ____ NADH ? ____ ATP (method?)
  • ____ FADH2 ? ____ ATP (method?)

55
NADH and FADH2 Summary
  • Glycolysis ? 2 NADH
  • Made in the cytoplasm
  • How they enter the mitochondria depends upon the
    type of cell
  • Preparatory Step ? 2 NADH
  • Krebs Cycle ? 6 NADH and 2 FADH2

56
Fermentation
  • Under anaerobic conditions the products of
    glycolysis enter fermentation reactions.
  • All fermentation reactions occur in the
    cytoplasm.

57
Fermentation
  • The purpose of all types of fermentation is to
    regenerate NAD so that glycolysis can continue.

58
Fermentation
  • Cells have a limited supply of NAD
  • Under aerobic conditions the cells major source
    of NAD is the first step of the ETC
  • Under anaerobic conditions the Krebs cycle and
    ETC stop
  • As a result NAD are no longer made in the
    mitochondria.

59
Fermentation
  • The two most common forms of fermentation are
  • Lacate fermentation
  • Alcoholic fermentation
  • Which type of fermentation occurs depends upon
    the organism.

60
Lactate Fermentation
  • Lactate fermentation occurs in
  • Humans and all other animals
  • Many bacteria

61
Lactate Fermentation
  • 2 Pyruvate (3C)
  • 2 Lactate (3C)
  • Also called pyruvic acid and lactic acid

2 NADH
2 NAD ? reused in glycolysis
62
Lactate build up in the cell results in
  • Increased blood supply to the area, which
  • Blood brings oxygen
  • Blood washes out the lactate
  • Lactate is taken to the liver where it is
    converted back to pyruvate (called the Cori
    cycle)
  • Too much lactate in the blood can cause acidosis
  • Muscle cramps if the lactate levels get too high
    occurs - painful

63
Alcoholic Fermentation
  • Alcoholic fermentation occurs in
  • Yeast (a fungus)
  • used in making alcoholic beverages and yeast
    breads
  • Many bacteria
  • Including those used to make Swiss cheese

64
Alcoholic Fermentation
  • 2 Pyruvate (3C)
  • 2 Acetaldehyde (2C)
  • 2 Ethanol (2C)

__________
2 NADH
2 NAD - reused in glycolysis
65
Alcoholic Fermentation
  • Ethanol (alcohol) builds up in the cell
  • When it reaches too high a level it denatures
    the cells proteins.
  • This results in cell death!
  • Wild yeasts die at 4 alcohol, wine making yeasts
    die at 14 alcohol.

66
Alcoholic Fermentation
  • Reactions cannot be reversed.
  • Remember, the lactate fermentation reaction is
    reversible
  • Lactate can be converted back to pyruvate in the
    liver, not in the cell its made in

67
  • This is the end of the slides needed.
  • The slides that follow are slides that give an
    overview of concepts related to the ETC.

68
Electron Transfers and Energy
  • Electron transfer reactions are called oxidation
    reduction reactions
  • Oxidation loss of electron(s)
  • Reduction gain of electron(s)
  • H often follow the electrons

69
Electron Transfers and Energy
  • ALL cells use the transfer of electrons and H to
    capture some of the energy stored in chemical
    bonds
  • Energy is temporarily stored in NADH and FADH2
  • The stored energy is then used to make ATP

70
Electron Transfers and Energy
  • NAD H 2 e ? NADH
  • FAD 2 H 2 e ? FADH2
  • Is the NAD oxidized or reduced in this
    reaction?
  • In general the reduced molecule is of greater
    energy due to the added energy of the electrons

71
Electron Transfer Chains
  • In mitochondria and chloroplasts there are
    electron transfer chains embedded in the inner
    membranes
  • The passage of the electrons from electron
    transfer protein to protein results in creation
    of an electrochemical gradient
  • This gradient is a form of stored energy and can
    be used to make ATP

72
Electron Transfer Chains
  • In mitochondria
  • NADH and FADH2 give electrons and H to specific
    proteins on the inner membrane of the
    mitochondria
  • this releases their stored energy
  • H follow the electrons into the proteins

73
Electron Transfer Chains
  • Energy given off by the electron transfers is
    used to pump H across the inner membrane into
    the outer compartment
  • This creates a chemical/electrical gradient
  • A form of potential energy
  • An ATP-synthesizing enzyme uses this energy to
    make ATP
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