Title: Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence
1Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence
2OUTLINE
- Biological theories
- Hall
- Organismic theories
- Freud, Erikson, and Piaget
- Learning theories
- Skinners Behaviorists
- Social learning theories
- Sociological theories
- Historical and anthropological approaches
31. ?????????????
- ??????????????,???????????????????????????????????
??????????,??????????? - ??????????????????????????(universal/common to
people in different cultures and social contexts)
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- ???????????????????,????????
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- ???????????????????????????????????????????????
- ???(4-8?)
- ???????????????????????????????????????????????
- ???(8-12?)
- ???????????????????????,????????????????????
6??????
- ???(12-25?)
- ?????????????????????
- ???????????????,??????????????? ????(storm and
stress) - P32-33
- ?????????????????????????????,????????????????????
??????,??????????????????????,?????????,????????
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- ?,11??,??????????,???????,????????????????????????
??? - 16?????????,??????????,???????????????????????????
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112.??????????????
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- ??????????,??????????????????????
- ????????????????(libido)
- ????
- ????????
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- ???(0-1?)
- ???(1-3?)
- ???(3-5?)
- ???(5-12?)
- ???(11-20?)
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??? - ??????????????????????????,???????????????????
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- ????
- ??????
- ????????????????????????,??????????????
17?????????????
- ??????????????
- ????????????,?????????????(psychosocial theory of
human development) - ???????????????
- ????????????????????????????????
- ??????????1
18?1 ?????????????
?? ???? /?????? ?? ???????
???(0-1.5?) ????(1.5-3?) ???(3-5?) ???(5-12?) ???(12-18?) ????(18-25?) ????(25-65?) ???(65???) ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????????
19?????????????
- ??????????????????,??????????????
- ?????????????,???????????,???????????
- ??????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????(????,1998) - ??????????????????,????????????
20?????????????
- ?????(self identity)
- ???????
- ???????(?????)
- ????????????????????,??????????
- ???????????????????????????????
- ???????????,??????????????????
213. ?????????????? ????
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???? - ??,???????????
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- ?????????????????????????????????
- ????????????,??????????????,????????????????,?????
????????????? - ??????????????
26??????????
- ????(observational learning)
- ???????(vicarious learning)
- ??????(??)?????????????
- ???????????????
- ??????????????????
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- ?????????????????
27? 1 ??????
28??????????
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- ??????????????????????????????
- ???????,????????????????,???????????????????
- ??????????????????????????,???????,???????????????
????? - ?????????,?????????????????????????
294. Lewins Field Theory
- ???????(Gestalt Psychology)??????,?????????????,??
????????????? - ???????????????????????
- Behavior (B) is a function of the Person (P) and
the Environment (E), i.e. BF(P, E) - The sum total of all environmental and personal
factors in interaction is called the life space
(LSp) or psychological space , i.e. BF(LSp)
304. Lewins Field Theory
- ??????????
- personindividuals physical and mental factors,
including physical status, needs, motives, and
goals etc. - environment??????????????????????????????????????
??????(environment conceived by an individual) - ??????????????????????????,????????????????
(??, 1997)
314. Lewins Field Theory
- ??????????????????,??????,???????????
32Figure 1 An individuals life space in a
conflict situation
334. Lewins Field Theory
- Actual behavior would be determined by the
strength of the forces, including positive or
negative valence of goals, forces of barriers,
etc.
344. Lewins Field Theory
- Evaluation
- Since person and environment are seen as a
constellation of interrelated factors, this
theory achieves harmony among the many aspects of
development by combining biological,
sociological, environmental, and psychological
factors in the concept of life space - As a consequence of the emphasis on the
combination of a persons biological,
psychological, and environmental factors, Lewin
preferred to explain development in terms of
individual, rather than in terms of group
35Lewins Ideas about development
- ???????????????????????
- ??????(development of individual)??????????????,??
????????????????????,?????????????????????? - ??????
36Lewins Ideas about development
- In infancy, a childs life space is unstructured
and undifferentiated, and the child depends on
outside help and external structuring of the
environment by other people - As the child groups up, his/her life space
increases in structure and differentiation, and
the child learns to be more and more self-reliant
37Lewins Ideas about development
- Lewin held the notion that an individuals space
of free movement is limited by a. what is
forbidden to a person b. what is beyond his/her
abilities (Lewin, 1936, p. 217) - As the child matures, fewer restrictions were
placed on his/her freedom to move, in addition,
the ability to deal effectively with the
increased life space grows
38- Figure 2 Comparison of the life space of
free movement of child(a) and adult(b)
39Lewins Ideas about development
- Lack of freedom of movement will place
restriction on the childs attempt to expand
his/her life space, and psychological rigidity
may result - However, if the life space, especially in early
childhood, remains unstructured, the personality
will lack integration and organization, as a
result, the individual will develop personality
confusion - So that, not only independence and freedom are
needed for positive development, but also certain
kind of dependency is necessary
40Figure 3 The space of free movement of
the adolescent
- As the adolescents life space increases, many
more regions become potentially accessible - But often it is not at all clear to adolescents
whether or not they are supposed to enter these
regions uncertainty
41Lewins Ideas about development
- Adolescents are not sure whether they are allowed
or forbidden to enter certain regions - The uncertainty or difficulty arises because
these regions are no longer beyond their
ability, and these regions are not explicitly
allowed nor explicitly forbidden - Consequently, the definition and redefinition of
the space of free movement in the adolescents
life space may take innumerable hours of
discussion and argumentation between them and
their parents
42Lewins Ideas about development
- Differences between developmental stages as a
function of increasing age manifest themselves in
the following ways, i.e. Lewins view of point
about developmental stages - 1. An increase in the scope of the life space in
regard to - a. What is part of the psychological present
- b. The time perspective in the direction of the
psychological past and the psychological future - 2. An increasing differentiation of every level
of the life space into a multitude of social
relations and area of activities
43Lewins Ideas about development
- Differences between developmental stages as a
function of increasing age manifest themselves in
the following ways, i.e. Lewins view of point
about developmental stages - 3. An increasing organization
- 4. A change in the general fluidity or rigidity
of the life space
44Figure 4 the life space of two
developmental stages
- life space of a younger child (a) and life space
of a older child(b) in regard to the present
situation, the reality-irreality dimension, and
the time perspective
45Lewins Ideas about development
- From figure 4, you can see
- 1. The main difference between young childs life
space and that of adolescents is the increased
differentiation - Change in the differentiation of the LSp occurs
slowly at certain times and more rapidly at other
times - Slow differentiation results in relatively
harmonious periods of development, while rapid
changes are more likely to result in periods of
crisis - Adolescence is characterized by a relatively
rapid change in the structure of the LSp, and
changes occur in several different domain
cognitive, physical, emotional, and interpersonal
46Lewins Ideas about development
- From figure 4, you can see
- 2. The time perspective has expanded
- The time perspective of the older child includes
an awareness of a more distant future and a more
distant past - Which has far-reaching consequences for
education, the curriculum, and vocational
planning - 3. The reality-irreality level also takes on new
dimensions - Better in distinguish between reality and
irreality
47Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- Fundamental to Lewins theory of development is
the view that - adolescence is a period of transition during
which adolescents must change their group
membership
48Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- Adolescent is experiencing biological and
physical changes, which make he or she is not
sure who he/she is, child or adult? - People around the adolescent, e.g. parents and
teachers, may treat the adolescent at one time
like a child or like an adult at another time - Certain childish forms of behavior are no longer
acceptable (such as washing clothes by mother),
and at the same time, some of the adult forms of
behavior are not yet permitted (such as car
driving)
49Figure 5 The adolescent as a marginal man
- During childhood and adulthood, the adults (A)
and children(C) are viewed as relatively
separated groups - Adolescent belonging to a group (Ad), which can
be viewed as an overlapping field of the
childrens and the adults group belonging to
both of them, or as standing between them, not
belonging to either one
50Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- The adolescent is in a state of social
locomotion, moving through an unstructured
social and psychological field - Goals are no longer clears, and the paths to them
are ambiguous and full of uncertainties - Since the adolescent does not have a clear
understanding of his or her social status,
expectations, obligations, or how to cope with
rejection, his or her behavior reflects this
uncertainty
51Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- The adolescent is confronted with several
attractive choices that are at the same time have
relatively impervious boundaries, e.g. driving a
car, smoking - Since the adolescent is moving through a rapidly
changing field of life, he/she does not know the
directions to specific goals and is open to
constructive guidance, but is also vulnerable to
persuasion, seduction, and group pressure - Unfamiliar situations cause crises that can
produce withdrawal, sensitivity, and inhibition
as well as aggression, inappropriate emotional
outbursts, rebellion, and radicalism
52Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- Because of a lack of cognitive structure, the
adolescent frequently is not sure whether certain
behavior can help in moving toward or away from a
particular goal nor what its consequences may be
53Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- During adolescence changes in body structure,
body experience, and new body sensations and
urges are more drastic, so that even the
well-known life space of body image becomes less
familiar, unreliable, and unpredictable - As a result, adolescents are very concerned about
their body image, and they will spend
considerable time studying their body image in
mirror, and are concerned about the development
of primary and secondary sex characteristics - Negative feelings about ones own body are
related to a negative self-concept and may lead
to emotional instability that can change ones
orientation toward life
54Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- The change in a childs life space from being
limited in scope but relatively structured to the
increased but less structured and often unknown
regions of the adolescents life space may
generate insecurities - But it includes also more extensive social
relationships, a new body image, and expanding
geographic surroundings, as well as an increased
perception of the future and a better
understanding of the past
55Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- In sum, Field theory defines adolescence as a
period of transition from childhood to adulthood - The possibility of moving from one social group
to the other is determined informally by ones
physique looking like an adult makes it easier
to get adult privileges - Formally, adult privileges and responsibilities
are determined by law and come at legally
established ages - This transition is characterized by deeper and
far-reaching changes, a faster rate of growth,
and differentiation of the life space as compared
with the preceding stages of late childhood - The transition is also characterized by the fact
that the individual enters a cognitively
unstructured region that results in uncertainty
of behavior
56Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- Transition from childhood to adulthood is a
universal phenomenon, since children change their
social roles and eventually become mature adults
in all societies - However, the shift from childhood to adulthood
can occur in different patterns - It can take the form of a sudden shift, as has
been observed in primitive societies in which the
puberty rites end childhood and signify the
beginning of adulthood - There can also be a gradual shift, especially if
the child group and the adult group are not as
clearly separated and defined as they are in our
society
57Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- In modern societies, adolescents find themselves
in a social situation in which their group
membership is not clearly defined - The adolescent in such an in-between situation is
referred to by Lewin as the marginal man, and
the adolescents in-between standing is
represented in Figure 5 by the overlapping area
(Ad) of the child region (C) and the adult region
(A)
58Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- Being a marginal man implies that the adolescent
may at times act more like a child, often when
he/she wants to avoid adult responsibilities at
other times he/she may act more like an adult and
request adult privileges - Parents and teachers, too, may interpret the
marginal-man situation in their own way they are
more likely to remind the adolescent to be
mature, grown-up, and adultlike when the issues
involve responsibilities, chores, work, and
study then perceive their charges as still too
young and immature when it comes to adult
rights and privileges - Such a situation is partly responsible for some
of adolescent difficulties in modern societies
59Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- From these basic assumptions about the nature of
human development, Lewin (1939) derives a number
of statements that describe, explain, and if the
the field forces are known, predict adolescent
behavior - 1. Adolescents may show shyness and sensitivity
but at the same time aggressiveness, mainly
because of the unclearness of the situation and
the disequilibrium in their life space
60Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- 2. As a marginal man, the adolescent experiences
a continuous conflict among different attitudes,
values, ideologies, and life-styles, since he/she
is shifting his/her orientation from the
childhood group to the adult group, but he/she
really does not belong to either. Therefore,
he/she experiences lack of social anchorage
except in relationship to his/her peer group - 3. These conflicts in values, attitudes, and
ideologies result in increased emotional tension - 4. There is a predisposition in the adolescent to
take extreme positions and to change behavior
drastically consequently, one can find radical,
rebellious attitudes and actions side by side
with sensitivity and withdrawal tendencies
61Lewins Ideas about adolescent development
- 5. Adolescent behavior can be observed only if
and to the extent that the structure and the
dynamics of the life involve the following
(1)expansion and differentiation of the life
space (2)marginal-man standing in relationship
to childhood and adult groups (3) biologically
determined changes in the life space as a result
of body changes. The particular type of behavior
that emerges and the degree of adolescent
behavior depend greatly on the strength and
nature of these conflicting forces. Above all in
importance is the amount of difference between
and the factors that separate adult society and
child society in a particular culture
625.?????????
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635.?????????
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645.?????????
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656.Piagets theory Basic concepts
- ???????
- ????????????(adaptation)
- ????(assimilation)???(accommodation)??????
- ??(schema)?????????(equilibrium)
- ?????????
- ??(maturation)
- ?????????(physical and symbolic logic knowledge)
- ????(social knowledge)
- ??(equilibrium)
666. Piagets theory Basic concepts
- Schema ??
- A generalized or established pattern of
meaningful and repeatable behavior patterns, such
as the sucking schema, the grasping schema - Equilibration ??
- Equilibration refers to the balance between the
developing child and his/her physical and social
environment - Operation ??
- Interiorized actions than one performs in ones
mind, which allow the subject to mentally perform
actions that previously had to be performed
physically
676. Piagets theory Developmental stages
- Developmental stages
- A sequential progression in the cognitive
structures, which underlie problem-solving
operations, takes place - Stages emerge in an orderly, invariant sequential
pattern, and no stage can be skipped - Stages are characterized by a whole structure
Each stage is characterized by an overall
structure in terms of which the main behavior
patterns can be explained (Piaget Inhelder,
1969, p. 153) - The earlier stages provide essential building
material that the individual integrates and
transforms in the process of moving to the next
higher level
686. Piagets theory Developmental stages
- Four stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimoter stage(0-2 years old)
- Preoperational stage(2-7 year old)
- Concrete operational stage(7-11 years old)
- Formal operational stage(from 11 years old on)
696. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought
- Formal operational thought
- Distinction between operational thought of the
child and the formal operations of adolescence - the former can deal with problems that are
presented concretely, while the later can deal
with abstract ideas and use more involved logical
processes - Four major components of formal operations
- Conception of possibilities
- Hypothetical deductive reasoning
- Interpropositional thinking
- Combinational or systemic thinking
706. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought
- Adolescents thought
- Becomes more abstract and shows a more
sophisticated mastery of formal operations
adolescents gain the ability to reason in terms
of verbally stated hypotheses and no longer in
terms of concrete objects and their manipulation - Be able to integrate all of the specific
operations, a process which results in a
structured wholeness of the thought processes - Can make hypothetical deductions and entertain
the idea of relativity adolescent, unlike
child, is an individual who thinks beyond the
present and forms theories about everything,
delighting especially in consideration of what is
not
716. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought
- Adolescents thought
- Analytically reflect about their own thinking
thinking about thinking, statement about
statement so that adolescents begin to have
theories about nature, person, and social items
such as implicit personality theory and
political idealism. The ability of reflective
thinking also contribute partly to the
re-emergence of adolescent egocentrism
726. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought
- ???
- ??????????????????????????????
- ????????????,?????????????????????????????????????
???,??????,?????? - ???????????????????????????,??????????????????
- ??????????,????????????????,??????????????????????
???????????,??????,??????,??????(???, 1982)
736. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought
- ???
- ????????????????????????????????????????????????
(???,1982) - ?????????????????????,????????????????????????????
?????????? - ????????,????????????????????,?????
747. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence
- Emphasis on the role of culture on adolescent
development - Human behavior could be explained in exclusively
cultural terms or human behavior is
understandable primarily in the context of social
and cultural patterns - Cultural determinism or Cultural relativism
on development
757. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence
- The question that Margaret Mead explored
- Are the disturbance which vex our adolescents
due to the nature of adolescence itself or to the
civilization? Under different conditions does
adolescence present a different picture? (Mead,
1928/1950, p. 17)
767. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence
- ?????????
- ??????(Coming of Age in Samoa, 1928)
- ?????????,????????????????,????????????????????
? - ??????????????????????????,????????????,????????
????????????????????????????????,????????????????
????????????????????,?????????????????????????????
????????????????????,?????????????
777. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence
- ?????????
- ??,???????????????????,??????????????,???????????
?????,???????????????????????????????????(??????
, 1988) - ????????????????????????????????????????????,?????
??????????? - ??,????????????,?????????????????????
787. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence
- Ruth Benedicts theory of cultural conditioning
- ?????????????(Continuities and Discontinuities
in Cultural Conditioning)(1938)?????(Patterns
of Culture)(1934) - Believe that human beings show far greater
plasticity and modifiability than animals, and
humans were from the time of birth on conditioned
by the cultural setting, so that human species
has made great progress and there are wide
intercultural differences
797. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence
- Ruth Benedicts theory of cultural conditioning
- Growth was a gradual, smooth, and continuous
process, if natural growth is uninfluenced by
social-environmental forces - However, to the extent that social groups
introduce requirements, restrictions,
differential treatment, and expectations,
discontinuities would emerge
807. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence
- Ruth Benedicts theory of cultural conditioning
- In modern societies, the difference between a
child and an adult and even between adolescents
of different ages is delineated sharply, by
legal definition, by different schools, and
different grades for different ages - Because of the differences or discontinuities
between childhood to adulthood, adaptation
difficulties or problems were resulted - In contrast, children in some primitive societies
follow a relatively continuous growth pattern - Three specific aspects of discontinuity versus
continuity in cultural conditioning responsible
versus nonresponsible status role dominance
versus submission contrasted sexual roles
818. Ecological perspectives of human
development
- ????????????????
- ??/??
- ????
- ???(microsytem)
- ????(mesosystem)
- ????(exosystem)
- ???(macrosystem)
- ??????(chronosystem)
82Ecological model of human development
838. Ecological perspectives of human
development
- Life Course theory by Glen Elder Jr
- Emphasis on the life course or time-dimension of
development - Believed that human life span can be best
understood by considering lives in their
historical time and place, the timing of social
roles and life events, the interdependence or
connections among lives, and the role of human
agency and social constraints in decision making
848. Ecological perspectives of human
development
- Life Course theory
- Human lives in historical time and place family
obligation of current adolescents and their
parents, grandparents perspectives on
consumptions of current adolescents and their
parents morality and values of current
adolescents and their parents - Linked lives such as parental divorce,
unemployment, parental conflicts, etc. - The timing of lives whether or not a person
experiences certain events at a given time - Human agency and social constraints peoples
choice and planning of life
85Summary
?? ??/?? ??/??? ??/?? ???
?????? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????????? ?????
???? ??????????? ??? ?? ????
????????? ????????????????????????? ???? ??????????????(?)???? ?????
86Summary
?? ??/?? ??/??? ??/?? ???
????? ?? ?? ??? ?????
????? ????? ????????????????????????????????,??????????(?????)???? ?? ????
????? ????? ?????? ?? ????
87Questions
- What kind of implications can be drawn from the
theoretical perspectives for the development of
adolescents - Or, what kind of picture you can draw for a
typical adolescent based on the theoretical
perspectives and the related evidence - What kind of implications can be drawn from the
theoretical perspectives for empirical research
on adolescents, either in terms of research
issues or in terms of implications for research
design - What is the relationship between theories and
real development of adolescents
88???????
- 1. ??
- 2. ??
- 3. ???
- ???????????????,????????????????????????,?????????
?????? - 4. ???????????????
- 5. ?????
- 6. ??/??
89???????
- 7. ????
- 8. ????????
- 9. ????????
- 10. ???????
- 11. ????????????????
- 12. ?????????????????
- 13. ???????????????
- 14. ????(explain things in a way that makes good
sense)
90- The purpose of the overview of the theoretical
perspectives on adolescence is to demonstrate how
each of the views has helped us to gain a better
understanding of the nature of adolescence, - And if possible, what research issues will be
produced from the theoretical perspectives
91- ???????????????,??????????????????,??????????
- David R.
Shaffer (2004)