Physiological measures of animal welfare (2): ???????????(?) Neuroendocrine ???????

1
Physiological measures of animal welfare
(2)???????????(?) Neuroendocrine???????

• Module 4
• ??4

2
This module will enable you to????????

• Understand the relationship between welfare and
  physiology?????????????
• Examine how the neuroendocrine system is
  associated with welfare?????????????????
• Understand how neuroendocrine responses can be
  used to assess welfare???????????????????
• Identify some pros/cons of using neuroendocrine
  measures to assess welfare?????????????

3
Change in welfare ??????? Change in physical
psychological states????????? ? Physiological
responses??????
Review????3???
4
Review????3???
Change in welfare ????????? Activation of
CNS ???????????
?
?
Autonomic nervous responses ????????
Neuroendocrine responses ?????????
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Neuroendocrine system?????????

• A welfare change affects three sub-divisions of
  the neuroendocrine system ????????????????????
• Hypothalamus ???
• Pituitary gland ????
• Adrenal gland ???

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Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA)
???-????-???(HPA?)

• Major mediator of endocrine responses??????????
• HPA increases mobilisation of energy stores for
  physical response HPA?????????,???????
• HPA mediates responses to HPA???????
• Stress ?? - Sexual activity ???
• Courtship ?? - Food arrival / foraging ????

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HPA cascade HPA?????
Hypothalamus ???
??????????
CRH corticotrophin-releasing hormone
Anterior pituitary gland ??????
????????
ACTH adrenocorticotrophic hormone
Adrenal cortex ?????
????
Glucocorticoids
Liver ??
Stimulus ?? HAP vessels ??????? Circulation ??
Module 4
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HPA characteristicsHPA????

• Response not as immediate as sympathetic
  adreno-medullary system ???????????
• Measure of acute welfare changes ????????????
• For example, plasma glucocorticoids elevated
  between 2-10 minutes after stimulation
  ????????2-10??,???????????
• Can remain elevated for hours depending on
  severity of stimulus ???????,?????????????

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Glucocorticoid measurement????????
Method ?? Invasive ??? Restrictive ??? Disturbing ???
Plasma ?? ? ? or ? ? or ?
Saliva ?? ? ? ?
Urine ?? ? ? ?
Faeces ?? ? ? ?
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Glucocorticoid measurement????????

• Analytical methods ????
• Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ??????????
• High performance liquid chromatography ????????
• Competitive protein binding assay ?????????
• Radioimmunoassay ???????

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Glucocorticoids????

• Corticosterone rodents, birds ?????
• Cortisol humans, pigs,
  and monkeys ??????
• Useful direct measure
• ?????????

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Glucocorticoid example 1???????1

• Cortisol ? in lambs in response to
• Tail-docking ???????
• ??????????
• Castration????????
• ?????????
• (Mellor Murray, 1989)

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Glucocorticoid example 2????????

• Urinary cortisol increases in
  domestic dogs if they are put in
  kennels ???????????,????????cortisol??
  ??(Hennessey et al 1997)
• If the dog has not been in
  kennels before, the increase is
  greater than if the dog has
  experienced kennels before
  ???????????????????,?????? (Hiby 2005)

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Chronic welfare assessment????????

• Indirect assessment of HPA ??HPA???
• Glucocorticoid receptors in the brain ??????????
• Number of receptors decreased in rats that were
  exposed to prolonged handling and disturbance
  ????????????????,??????????? (Wadham, 1997)
• ACTH challenge test ?????????
• ACTH is administered, and resulting
  glucocorticoid levels measured ??ACTH??????????

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ACTH challenge test?????????

• Example Dairy cows ???????
• Long periods of over-
  crowding gt higher
  cortisol response than
  if less
  crowded ????????cortisol??? (Friend et al.,
  1977)

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Limitations to HPA measuresHPA???????

• Individual differences ????
• Early experience ??????
• (Levine et al., 1967)
• Sex ??
• (Livezey et al., 1985)
• Metabolism ????

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Limitations to HPA measuresHPA???????(?)

• Species ??
• New World Monkeys ???? (Klostermann et al., 1986)
• Time when sampled ????
• Circadian rhythm ????

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Limitations to HPA measuresHPA???????(?)

• Disturbance due to measurement ?????
• Human presence, handling, restraint and sampling
  method ????????????????,?????????

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Other autonomic measures of animal
welfare???????????

• Body temperature ??
• Opioid levels ???????
• Organ pathology ??????

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Body temperature???????

• Acute welfare measure ???????
• Changes in other physiological systems (e.g.
  adrenal activity) gt changes in core body
  temperature ??????????(????????)??????????
• Rat body temperature ? by storms and unfamiliar
  people ???????????????(Georgiev, 1978)
• ? body temperature in defeated tree shrews
  ?????????????????(von Holst, 1986)

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Temperature measurement????
Method ?? Site ???? Core Temp ???? Invasive ??? Restrictive ??? Disturbing ???
Direct, e.g. thermometer ???--??? Mouth,? ear ? rectal ? ? ? ? ?
Telemetry ?????? Internal?? ? ? /- /-
Thermo-imaging ?????? Skin ?? ? ? ? ?
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Opioids??????

• Three types 3???
• Endorphins ???
• Enkephalins ???
• Dynorphins ???
• Functions ??
• Stress-induced analgesia ????????
• Control hormone release???????

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Opioid measurement???????
Method ?? Invasive ??? Restrictive ??? Disturbing ???
Blood ?? ? ? ?
Brain receptors ???? ? ? ?
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Opioid examples?????????

• Increase in plasma ß-endorphin in lambs during
  castration, tail docking and mulesing
  ??????????????,??ß-???????(Shutt et al.,1987)
• Tethered sows had higher opioid receptor density
  than group-housed sows ?????????????????????(Zanel
  la et al., 1996)

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Organ Pathology????

• Chronic welfare changes gt wide variety of
  pathologies ?????????????????
• Most are measured post-mortem e.g.,
  ?????????????,??
• Adrenal hypertrophy ?????
• Kidney lesions ????
• Myocardial lesions ????
• In vivo ????
• Stomach ulcers ???

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Pathology examples??????

• Social instability in female groups of rats
  adrenal hypertrophy ???????????????????????(Haller
  et al., 1999)
• Subordinate mice show kidney lesions in the
  presence of dominant animals ?????????,??????????
  (Henry Stephens-Larson, 1985)
• Myocardial lesions associated with longer periods
  of restraint in pigs ?????????????? (Wutzen et
  al., 1987)

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Conclusion?????

• Neuroendocrine system gt acute and chronic
  measures of welfare ??????????????????????
• Direct and indirect ANS measures?????????????????
• Limitations of measures??????????????,???????
• Other physiological responses can also be used to
  assess welfare e.g. temperature, organ pathology,
  and opioid levels ??????????????????,?????????????
  ?????????

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Further reading????

• FRIEND, T.H., POLAN, C.E., GWAZDAUSKAS, F.C.
  HEALD, C.W., 1977 Adrenal glucocorticoid
  response to exogenous adrenocorticotrophin
  mediated by density and social disruption in
  dairy cows. J. Diary Sci. 60, 1958-1963
• GEORGIEV J. 1978 Influence of environmental
  conditions and handling on temperature rhythm of
  the rat. Biotelemetry Patient Monit. 5, 229-234
• HALLER J, FUCHS E, HALASZ J MAKARA GB. 1999
  Defeat is a major stressor in males while social
  instability is stressful mainly in females
  Towards the development of a social stress model
  in female rats. Brain Research Bulletin 50 (1)
  33-39
• HENNESSEY MB, DAVIS HN, WILLIAMS MT, MELLOTT C
  DOUGLAS CW 1997 Plasma cortisol levels of dogs at
  a county animal shelter. Physiol Behav 62
  485-490

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Further reading????

• HENRYJP STEPHENS-LARSON P. 1985 Specific
  aspects of stress on disease processes. In
  MOBERG, G. P. (Ed.) Animal Stress. American
  Physiological Association, Maryland, USA
• HIBY EF 2005 The Welfare of Kennelled Domestic
  Dogs. PhD Thesis, University of Bristol
• KALIN NH, CARNES M, BARKSDALE CM, SHELTON SE,
  STEWART RD RISCH SC. 1985 Effects of acute
  behavioural stress on plasma and cerebrospinal
  fluid, ACTH and ?-endorphin in rhesus monkeys.
  Neuroendocrinology 40, 97-101
• KLOSTERMANN LL, MURAI JT SIITERI PK. 1986
  Cortisol levels, binding and properties of
  corticosteroid-binding globulin in the serum of
  primates. Endocrinology 118, 424-434
• LANG RE, HEIL JWE, GANTEN D, HERMANN K UNGER T.
  1983 Oxytocin, unlike vasopressin, is a stress
  hormone in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 37, 314-316

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Further reading????

• LANE J 2006 Can non-invasive glucocorticoid
  measures be used as reliable indicators of stress
  in animals? Animal Welfare 15 331-342
• LEVINE S, HALTMEYER GC, KARAS GG DENENBERG VH.
  1969 Physiological and behavioural effects of
  infantile stimulation. Physiology and Behavior 2,
  55-59
• LIVEZEY GT, MILLER JM VOGEL WH. 1985 Plasma
  norepinephrine, epinephrine and corticosterone
  stress responses to restraint in individual male
  and female rats and their correlations. Neurosci.
  Lett. 62, 51-56
• MELLOR DJ MURRAY L. 1989 Effects of tail
  docking and castration on behaviour and plasma
  cortisol concentrations in young lambs. Res. Vet.
  Sci. 46, 387-391

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Further reading????

• SHUTT, D.A., FELL, L.R., CONNELL, R., BELL, A.K.,
  WALLACE, C.A. SMITH, A.I., 1987 Stress-induced
  changes in plasma concentrations of
  immunosuppressive ß-endorphin and cortisol in
  response to routine surgical procedures in lambs.
  Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 40, 97-103.
• VON HOLST D. 1986 Vegetative and somatic
  components of tree shrews behaviour. J. Auton.
  Nerv. Syst. Suppl., 657-670
• WADHAM JJB. 1997 Recognition and reduction of
  adverse effects in research on rodents. PhD
  Thesis, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The
  University of Birmingham
• WUTZEN J, LEWICKI Z, ROZYCKA Z, CEREMUZYNSKI L
  BARCIKOWSKI R. 1987 Effects of immobilisation
  stress on histological, histochemical and
  electron-microscopic changes in porcine
  myocardium. Mat. Med. Pol. 19, 78-84.
• ZANELLA AJ, BROOM DM, HUNTER JC, MENDL MT. 1996
  Brain opioid receptors in relation to
  stereotypies, inactivity, and housing in sows.
  Physiol Behav 59 769-775