Operant Conditioning

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Operant Conditioning

• I liked to thank W. Huitt for this wonderful
  presentation.
• The following presentation covers the operant
  condition.
• The learning of behavior from a particular
  method.
• The significance is that your clients/patients
  have learned some of their maladaptvie behaviors
  in this way.
• Likewise they can learn new behaviors in this
  manner.

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Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning investigates the influence
  of consequences on subsequent behavior.

• Operant conditioning investigates the learning
  of voluntary responses.

• It was the dominant school in American
  psychology from the 1930s through the 1950s.

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Operant Conditioning

• Where classical conditioning illustrates S--gtR
  learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as
  R--gtS learning

• It is the consequence that follows the response
  that influences whether the response is likely or
  unlikely to occur again.

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Operant Conditioning

• The three-term model of operant conditioning
  (S--gt R --gtS) incorporates the concept that
  responses cannot occur without an environmental
  event (e.g., an antecedent stimulus) preceding
  it.

• While the antecedent stimulus in operant
  conditioning does not ELICIT or CAUSE the
  response (as it does in classical conditioning),
  it can influence its occurance.

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Operant Conditioning

• When the antecedent does influence the
  likelihood of a response occurring, it is
  technically called a discriminative stimulus.

• It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary
  response (i.e., the response's consequence) that
  changes the probability of whether the response
  is likely or unlikely to occur again.

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Operant Conditioning

• There are two types of consequences

• positive (sometimes called pleasant)

• negative (sometimes called aversive)

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Operant Conditioning

• Two actions can be taken with these stimuli

• they can be ADDED to the learners environment.

• they can be SUBRACTED from the learners
  environment.

• If adding or subtracting the stimulus results in
  a change in the probability that the response
  will occur again, the stimulus is considered a
  CONSEQUENCE.

• Otherwise the stimulus is considered a NEUTRAL
  stimulus.

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Operant Conditioning

• There are 4 major techniques or methods used in
  operant conditioning.

• They result from combining

• the two major purposes of operant conditioning
  (increasing or decreasing the probability that a
  specific behavior will occur in the future),

• the types of stimuli used (positive/pleasant or
  negative/aversive), and

• the action taken (adding or removing the
  stimulus).

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Operant Conditioning
Outcomes of Conditioning
Reintforcement Increases Behavior
Punishment Decreases Behavior
Stimulus
Something Added Increases behavior
Something Subtracted Decreases behavior
Positive/pleasant
Positive Reinforecement
Response Cost/ Negative Punishment
Something Subtracted Increases Behavior
Negative/Aversive
Something Added Decreases behavior
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
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Schedules of consequences
Stimuli are presented in the environment
according to a schedule of which there are two
basic categories

• Continuous

• Intermittent

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Schedules of consequences
Continuous reinforcement simply means that the
behavior is followed by a consequence each time
it occurs.

• Excellent for getting a new behavior started.

• Behavior stops quickly when reinforcement stops.

• Is the schedule of choice for punishment and
  response cost.

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Schedules of consequences
Intermittent schedules are based either on the

• passage of time

OR

• number of correct responses

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Schedules of consequences
The consequence can be delivered based on

• a fixed amount of time or number of correct
  responses

OR

• a slightly different amount of time or number of
  responses that vary around a particular number

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Schedules of consequences
This results in an four classes of intermittent
schedules.
Fixed Interval

• The first correct response after a set amount of
  time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a
  consequence is delivered).

• The time period required is always the same.

• Example Spelling test every Friday.

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Schedules of consequences
Variable Interval

• The first correct response after a set amount of
  time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a
  consequence is delivered).

• After the reinforcement, a new time period
  (shorter or longer) is set with the average
  equaling a specific number over a sum total of
  trials.

• Example Pop quiz

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Schedules of consequences
Fixed Ratio

• A reinforcer is given after a specified number
  of correct responses. This schedule is best for
  learning a new behavior.

• The number of correct responses required for
  reinforcement remains the same.

• Example Ten math problems for homework

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Schedules of consequences
Variable Ratio

• A reinforcer is given after a set number of
  correct responses.

• After reinforcement the number of correct
  responses necessary for reinforcement changes.
  This schedule is best for maintaining behavior.

• Example A student raises his hand to be called
  on.

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Premack Principle

• The Premack Principle, often called "grandma's
  rule," states that a high-frequency activity can
  be used to reinforce low-frequency behavior.

• Access to the preferred activity is contingent
  on completing the low-frequency, non-preferred
  behavior.

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Premack Principle

• The high frequency behavior to use as a
  reinforcer can be determined by

1. Asking students what they would like to do.
2. Observing students during free time.
3. Knowledge of interests of a particular age
group.
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Behavioral Principles

• Premack Principle- pair HIGH FREQEUNCY response
  with a low frequency response
• Token Economy - useful in teaching new
  behaviors
• Shaping - reinforcing successive approximations
• Modeling - as a healer you are already
  unconsciously involved. Useful in teaching
  complex behaviors,
• Biofeedback - an extension of operant
  conditioning
• Generalization - when a conditioned response is
  elicit by stimuli that is similar to a
  conditioned stimuli (e.g.belI)

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Rules In Analyzing Examples

• The following questions can help in determining
  whether operant conditioning has occurred.

a. What behavior in the example was increased or
decreased?
b. Was the behavior

• increased (if yes, the process has the be either
  positive or negative reinforcement),

OR

• decreased (if the behavior was decreased the
  process is either response cost or punishment).

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Rules In Analyzing Examples

• The following questions can help in determining
  whether operant conditioning has occurred.

c. What was the consequence / stimulus that
followed the behavior in the example?
d. Was the consequence (stimulus) added or
removed?

• If added, the process was either positive
  reinforcement or punishment.

• If it was subtracted, the process was either
  negative reinforcement or response cost.

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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He
camped-out on every Friday during the month of
June. The last time he camped out, some older
kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping
and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy
has not camped-out for three weeks.
a. What behavior was changed?
Camping out
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He
camped-out on every Friday during the month of
June. The last time he camped out, some older
kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping
and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy
has not camped-out for three weeks.
b. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?
Weakened (Behavior decreased)
Eliminate positive and negative reinforcement
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He
camped-out on every Friday during the month of
June. The last time he camped out, some older
kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping
and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy
has not camped-out for three weeks.
c. What was the consequence?
Having water thrown on him.
d. Was the behavior consequence added or
subtracted?
Added
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He
camped-out on every Friday during the month of
June. The last time he camped out, some older
kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping
and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy
has not camped-out for three weeks.
Since a consequence was ADDED and the behavior
was WEAKENED (REDUCED), the process was
PUNISHMENT.
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• 1. A rat is placed in a cage and immediately
  receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The
  shock is a negative condition for the rat. The
  rat presses a bar and the shock stops. The rat
  receives another shock, presses the bar again,
  and again the shock stops. The rats behavior of
  pressing the bar is strengthened by the
  consequence of the stopping of the shock.

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Analyzing An Example
Additional examples are provided in the web
materials.
An excellent web-based presentation on positive
reinforcement is provided at
http//server.bmod.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpa
ir.htm
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Behavioral Conditioning of the Immune System

• gtStrong mind the body never sick!
• gtls this advanced use of behavioral principles?
  Behavioral Medicine research has demonstrated in
  a number of studies that the brain modulates the
  immune system and in turn the immune system
  modulates the brain.
• gtThis retains a sense of balance known as
• _______?
• gtHow do you think the brain and immune system
  communicate?

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Behavioral Conditioning of the Immune System

• gt This because there is two aspects of the immune
  system
• 1. innate response and 2. learned or adaptive
• gt The learned or adaptive aspect of the system
• is related to lymphocytes.
• Lymphocytes are more specific antigen oriented.
• Lymphocytes are related to cytokines and antibody
  mediated functions.
• gt Lymphocytes are not stationary.
• gt Physical activity and respiratory and lymph
  nodes.

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Behavioral Conditioning of the Immune System

• gt They used a novel tasting solution (CS) and
  paired it with an illness inducing drug (UCS).
• gt The illness inducing drug (UCS) elicits the
  immune defense system into action (UCR).
• After repeated pairing, the tasting solution (CS)
  can begin to elicit the defense system
• (UCR).
• gt WHY? IS IT THE STRESS?

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Behavioral Conditioning of the Immune System

• gt This is best witnessed via the behaviorally
  conditioned immunomodulation.
• A natural immune system response (UCR) is paired
  repeatedly with a neutral stimuli (CS).
• gt Then, the neutral stimuli (CS) when introduced
  can also elicit a immune system response (UCR).
• gt Therefore, we can learn to stimulate the immune
  system and rally the defenses.
• gt But, we need learn to make indirect influences
  into direct influences.
• gt This is due to the threshold concept of
  systems.

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Behavioral Conditioning of the Immune System

• gt This is not surprising since we have
  demonstrated how the neuroendocrine system and
  autonomic nervous system can be influenced.
• gt This has been done via studies with
  meditation/relaxation response and treating
  anxiety disorders.
• gt Ader and Cohen (1975) worked on studies done in
  the first half of the 20th century by the
  Soviets.