Ethical Theory

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Ethical Theories, Science and Chemistry
Dr. Christine A. James Philosophychjames_at_valdost
a.edu http//teach.valdosta.edu/chjames/chemethic
s2009.htm
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First, some background to the sub-disciplines in
Philosophy that relate to you as scientists

• Philosophy of Science asks how knowledge is
  gained, how experiments should be constructed,
  what the history of science tells us, whether
  governments, corporations, and funding influence
  research
• Philosophy of Technology asks how the scientist
  relates to other scientists, instruments,
  technology, and the material culture of the
  laboratory
• Ethics (subfields like Medical, Environmental)
  asks how research impacts biodiverse populations
  discusses whether the implications of research
  are fair, equitable whether the research can be
  justified if biological or environmental harm
  occurs

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Ethical Issues faced by scientists

• Standards Ideals
• Honesty Biases
• Duties Funding Pressures
• Professional Codes Pedagogy
• Plagiarism
• Priority Disputes

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Where ethics codes originate

• Philosophers recommend general ethical
  principles.
• Ethical claims should be

• Prescriptive
• Universal
• Overriding
• Public
• Practical

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Some of the major ethical theories

• Paul Ricoeur and the hermeneutic theory of
  interpretation
• Jürgen Habermas, critical theory, communicative
  action, and emancipation
• Aristotle and virtue ethics

• Immanuel Kant and duty-based or
  intentions-based deontological ethics
• Bentham, Mill, Rachels and utilitarian
  consequence-based teleological ethics

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Aristotle

• Moral education seek examples of good moral
  behavior and following them
• Virtue is acting in the right way at the right
  time in the right situation
• Practice the moral virtues, like courage,
  compassion, altruism, and temperance

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The Golden Mean Test

• Aristotle says that to be morally educated, one
  must practice what the virtuous person would do.
  The way to do this is to seek The Golden Mean.
  Imagine a horizontal line, with each end an
  extreme vice, and the middle a virtue. In the
  case of the virtue courage, the vices are
  cowardice (too little courage) and
  foolhardiness (too much courage.) The right
  amount of courage is in the middle, depending on
  circumstances (for example, different amounts of
  courage are needed for fighting in battle, or for
  surviving a convenience store hold up.)
• How might this relate to honesty?

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Immanuel Kant

• 1724-1804
• Königsberg, Prussia (now Germany)
• Actions are moral if done purely from duty.
• Maxim test statement of intended action should
  be universal, commanded of everyone in similar
  situations

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Three Formulations of the Categorical Imperative

• Always act so that the maxim of your action is a
  universal law and a universal law of nature.
• Always treat humanity, in the form of yourself or
  another person, as an end in itself, never merely
  as a means.

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Kantian Duties

• Examples
• -tell the truth
• -develop talents
• -preserve life
• -be impartial
• -act in beneficence
• -act in non-maleficience
• Problems arise when duties conflict!

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Utilitarianism

• The Principle of Utility
• The moral worth of an action resides in its
  consequences. Right moral actions bring about
  the best consequences for the greatest number of
  people.

• Utility, or the best consequences, can be
  defined in many ways
• Economic good
• Pleasure, rather than pain
• Happiness
• Security

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Jeremy Bentham

• 1748-1832
• London, England
• Acts are morally right if they maximize pleasure
  for the greatest number, which can be measured in
  hedons
• Hedonic calculus should be used for every act
• Necessitates some self-sacrifice

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John Stuart Mill

• 1806-1873
• London, England
• Refines Bentham
• Moral worth of acts still lies in their
  consequences
• Uses general rules that bring about utility,
  rather than choosing by each action
• Quality of pleasures matters as much as quantity
  of pleasures

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James Rachels

• University of Alabama at Birmingham
• Refines utilitarianism
• Self-sacrifice issue shows limits of lifeboat
  ethics
• Need for specific concepts that will aid utility
  in the long-term Justice, and Rights

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Quick Review

• Aristotle, virtue or aretaic ethics, based on
  finding the right amount of a virtue in the right
  circumstance is the mark of ethical behavior
• Kant, duty or deontological ethics, intention of
  acting from universal duty is the mark of ethical
  behavior
• Utilitarianism (Mill), results, ends, goals of
  actions are the mark of ethical behavior, usually
  the good for the greatest number of people
  affected, known as teleological ethics

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Paul Ricoeur

• 1913-
• Valence, France
• Understanding between people comes from listening
  to narratives, descriptions, stories
• Hermeneutics, named the Greek god Hermes

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Jürgen Habermas

• 1929-
• Frankfurt, Germany
• Communicative Ethics
• People can be empowered through communicative
  interaction
• Critical Theory political interest in
  acknowledging and exposing individual biases
  through communication

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American Chemical Society Chemists Code of
Conduct

• http//portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfp
  btrue_pageLabelPP_ARTICLEMAINnode_id1095cont
  ent_idCTP_004007use_sectruesec_url_varregion1
  __uuida943cfd9-1ae3-4a56-b34c-109c10fb4f4b
• CHEMISTS ACKNOWLEDGE RESPONSIBILITIES TO
• The PublicThe Science of ChemistryThe
  ProfessionThe EmployerTheir EmployeesTheir
  StudentsTheir AssociatesTheir Clients
• The Environment
• Other ethical guidelines and documents are
  available at
• http//portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfp
  btrue_pageLabelPP_TRANSITIONMAINnode_id1095u
  se_secfalsesec_url_varregion1__uuid8a1c36fc-c
  db4-403a-92ab-36ee694f2d6b

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• scientists have developed synthetic molecules
  that promote neuron growth and could potentially
  lead to the reversal of paralysis due to spinal
  cord injury. Following spinal cord injury, neural
  progenitor cells in the body can produce cells
  called astrocytes that lead to scarring.
  Scarring prohibits nerve regeneration, which
  causes paralysis. Researchers, led by Samuel L.
  Stupp, Professor of Materials Science,
  Engineering, Chemistry and Medicine, grew nerve
  cells using an artificial three-dimensional
  network of nanofibers formed from peptide
  amphiphile molecules
• But, this same type of paralysis may one day be
  treated using cloned cells.

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Nanotechnology has implications for medicine and
communications
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The way that scientists choose experiments,
conduct experiments, and receive funding
interacts with our social and moral context.
Here are some potential examples of scientists
who balance these aspects of their work.
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Ethical Dilemma

• William, a chemical engineer with over 10 years
  of experience, takes a new job as environmental
  health and safety (EHS) manager of a plant. As he
  familiarizes himself with the operation, he
  notices that the facility's air permit does not
  mention a major pollutant "X," a byproduct of
  manufacture. However, it does mention a
  chemically related pollutant "Y," which he is
  relatively sure could not be emitted by the
  process. Years of stack test results indicated
  that testing found only traces of "Y,"
  accompanied by certifications that the plant was
  in compliance. Reading the back-up documentation,
  William sees why The person holding the job
  before the previous incumbent had written the
  permit incorrectly. What should William do?

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How to write about a dilemma

• Describe the case briefly.
• Discuss the major individuals and their
  responsibilities.
• Argue for which ethical concepts should govern
  their behavior
• Kant, duties, motivations, intentions
• Mill, good for the greatest number
• Aristotle, character, virtue
• Ricoeur, Habermas, communication and empowerment

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Ethical Dilemma

• William, a chemical engineer with over 10 years
  of experience, takes a new job as environmental
  health and safety (EHS) manager of a plant. As he
  familiarizes himself with the operation, he
  notices that the facility's air permit does not
  mention a major pollutant "X," a byproduct of
  manufacture. However, it does mention a
  chemically related pollutant "Y," which he is
  relatively sure could not be emitted by the
  process. Years of stack test results indicated
  that testing found only traces of "Y,"
  accompanied by certifications that the plant was
  in compliance. Reading the back-up documentation,
  William sees why The person holding the job
  before the previous incumbent had written the
  permit incorrectly. What should William do?

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Tobin Marks, Professor of Catalytic Chemistry

• Designed a co-catalyst that led to what is now a
  standard process for producing better
  polyolefins, including polyethylene and
  polypropylene. These plastics are lighter in
  weight and more recyclable than previous plastics
• Positive interactions with the Dow Chemical
  Company, supporting environmental issues and
  funding for students
• OLEDs organic light emitting diodes featuring
  self-assembling structures (smart molecules)
• Transparent conductors, with application for
  solar energy
• (Both are energy efficient technologies)

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Another example Mercedes CarnethonIs funding
given to womens health issues in the same
proportion as mens health issues?How about
health care and third world countries?
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• Do female scientists bring a special perspective
  to their research?
• Statiscally, female scientists are more involved
  in research related to health issues.

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Cloninghttp//www.learner.org/channel/courses/ess
ential/life/session3/closer3.html

• Christopher Reeve, embryonic stem cells, and
  Copycat http//www.sciencecases.org/stem_cells/st
  em_cells.asp

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Cloning advantages and disadvantages

• Chromosomal abnormalities may be passed on
• May help to cure a variety of diseases, from
  paralysis to Parkinsons
• Negative implications of playing God
• May provide information and access to needed
  treatments, quality of life
• Motivations Research status, other countries,
  money
• Devaluing life, especially human

http//www.bioscinet.bbsrc.ac.uk/revo.html
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not only about cloning whole organisms

• http//cmgm.stanford.edu/biochem118/Stem20Cell.ht
  ml

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• http//www.globalchange.com/clonlink.htm

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• Also about cloning of specific cell types, that
  are relevant to the treatment of particular
  diseases
• http//whyfiles.org/148clone_clash/

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We should also ask who gains from embryonic stem
cell research

• http//www.sciencecases.org/stem_cells/stem_cells.
  asp

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BIO 2005 Annual International Convention, June
19-22, 2005

• WASHINGTON, D.C. (April 27, 2005) -- A series of
  thought-provoking, educational panel sessions on
  varying aspects of stem cell research will be
  showcased at the BIO 2005 Annual International
  Convention, June 19-22, 2005, at the Pennsylvania
  Convention Center in Philadelphia.
• Indeed, stem cell research and its potential
  therapeutic applications are no longer limited to
  discussions among scientists, researchers and
  ethicists. During the last few years, debates
  concerning embryonic and adult stem cell research
  have found their way into the halls of Congress
  and other regulatory agencies.
• Jim Greenwood, president of BIO, said, The
  issues surrounding stem cell research continue to
  dominate the agenda in Congress, state
  legislatures, and around the world. This has
  intensified as research advances and governments
  compete to attract the best scientists.

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• BIO represents more than 1,100 biotechnology
  companies, academic institutions, state
  biotechnology centers and related organizations
  across the United States and 31 other nations.
  BIO members are involved in the research and
  development of healthcare, agricultural,
  industrial and environmental biotechnology
  products.
• Although stem cell research is still at a very
  early stage, someday this technology may provide
  treatments for diabetes, heart disease, spinal
  cord injuries and a host of other disabling and
  deadly conditions. We should do everything we can
  to accelerate the research and ensure that the
  myriad therapeutic possibilities are explored to
  their fullest. We can do nothing less for the
  patients and families who are waiting and
  hoping, Greenwood concluded.
• The following sessions on stem cell technology
  will take place over the course of the
  conference

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Tuesday, June 21, 2005 Patenting Stem Cell
Technology 930 - 1045 AM

• This session includes speakers from the United
  States, Canada, Australia, Japan and Europe who
  will explore the patentability issues relating to
  stem cells in their respective jurisdictions, and
  whether adequate intellectual property protection
  is available for this technology. Recent case law
  in the area will be discussed. The session will
  be chaired by Claire Baldock, partner, Boult Wade
  Tennant.
• For more information, visit http//www.bio.org/eve
  nts/2005/speaker/sessionlist.asp?id16

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Discussion points

• Do you agree with the approach taken by the BIO
  organizers?
• What do you believe we should use as criteria for
  decisions on cloning and stem cell research
  utility, common good, intentions of the
  researchers, the quest for knowledge, financial
  benefits, keeping up with other countries
• Lets test your ideas with case studies!

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How do these ethical theories connect with what
scientists do in the lab? How should ethics
affect scientific decisions and work?
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• Anyone know what this is?
• Hint
• Using knowledge of chemistry to benefit medical
  treatments

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• Proteins, aggregated into amyloid derived
  diffusable ligands (ADDLs) that affect synapses
  and may be related to Alzheimers disease.
• Are there ethical implications that affect
  research on diseases like Alzheimers?
• How does this research relate to the political
  and social context we live in?

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• Hmm?

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Calcium scanning to predict heart disease
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Science happens in an ethical, social and
political context a context that matters!
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Become a catalyst for ethical behavior in your
research and in the lab!
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NanoCenter at the University of South
Carolinahttp//www.usatoday.com/tech/news/techpo
licy/2003-09-04-ethics-nano_x.htm

• U. of South Carolina receives 1.3M to study
  ethics of nanotech COLUMBIA, S.C. (AP) The
  National Science Foundation has awarded the
  University of South Carolina a 1.3 million grant
  to research the ethics of nanoscience, which is
  the study of atoms and molecules. The four-year
  grant is a major step forward for the
  university's nanoscience research, USC said. In
  June 2001, the university created its NanoCenter,
  which brings together faculty from science, math
  and engineering to conduct research. The
  university sees the efforts as gaining a better
  foothold in emerging technology.
• "Our aim is to work with scientists and engineers
  who are developing this new science in order to
  understand this new technology and the social
  changes it will bring about," said Davis Baird,
  head of the university's research team. "Together
  we want to address the societal implication of
  this emerging science so we can accurately convey
  to the public how nanotechnology may change
  society."
• The grant will address the societal implications
  and ethics surrounding nanoscience technology,
  which seeks to control and manipulate matter on a
  molecular scale. The grant is among the largest
  ever awarded by the National Science Foundation
  to explore the consequences of an emerging
  science.
• Nanotechnology has already yielded familiar
  products, including clear sunscreen that blocks
  UV rays and stain-resistant pants.

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Conference on Nanotech and Ethics

• This conference explores the ethical and legal
  issues raised by nanotechnology, including
  reflections on
• toxicity of nanoparticles, environmental
  sustainability remediation, human/machine
  interfaces, human enhancements, privacy and
  security, legal and ethical theories for nano,
  government regulation, scientific integrity and
  liberty, tech transfer, patenting and insurance
  liability, military use of nanotechnology,
  nanomedicine, the nano-divide, international and
  developing world needs
• Confirmed speakers include Mihail Roco, Senior
  Advisor of the National Science Foundation Vicki
  Colvin, Director of CBEN at Rice University
• The conference is supported in part by a NIRT
  grant from
• the National Science Foundation.

• NANOTECHNOLOGY ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES
• A Conference Sponsored by NSTS at the University
  of South Carolina
• 2-6 MARCH 2005
• Developments in nanotechnology provide the basis
  for a convergence of the physical and life
  sciences, including biomedicine, information
  technology, and cognitive science. Emerging
  technologies include highly functional molecular
  systems, alternative manufacturing processes,
  molecular computing, brain/machine interfaces,
  tissue engineering, and recombinant genetic
  alterations of viral, plant, and animal systems.
• Virtually all areas of human life may be
  transformed, and these transformations will
  likely involve both great benefit and great risk.

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Three Systems of Ethics for Diverse
Applications and Ethical Administration of
Nanotechnology by Chris Phoenixhttp//www.nano
tech-now.com/Chris-Phoenix/ethical-nano.htmhttp/
/nanotech-now.com/Chris-Phoenix/diverse-ethics.htm

• nanotechnology will present a large range of new
  problems and new opportunities. Commercial and
  Information groups cannot be trusted to take
  appropriate precautions in every case, so a
  Guardian approach is sometimes necessary.
  Likewise, Guardian and Information ethics do not
  create money, so Commercial organizations must be
  involved to pay for large parts of the
  development and deployment of the technology.
  Finally, although Guardian ethics include
  "Dispense largesse," neither Guardian nor
  Commercial organizations can be expected to
  create and distribute the almost limitless
  benefits that will become possible from vastly
  improved materials and manufacturing

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• Ideally, each organization involved in
  nanotechnology would be aware of its own ethics
  and the ethics of the organizations it interacts
  with, and make good decisions about which
  problems to tackle and which problems to leave
  for someone else. In practice, of course,
  organizations are usually not so self-aware, and
  even when they are, short-sighted self interest
  may tempt them to expand into areas where they
  have no competence. In the end, an organization
  that overreaches itself will find that its plans
  don't work it will make ineffective and
  antisocial decisions, and it will be out-competed
  by its fellow organizations and attacked by those
  it has encroached on. However, such a process may
  take much time and cause much destruction
  consider the long-delayed fall of the Soviet
  Union, due in large part to its application of
  Guardian ethics to commerce and information.
  Nanotechnology will develop too quickly for such
  slow adjustments. If an organization manages to
  usurp power in an area where it does not belong,
  and hold that power for even a few years, it may
  create an imbalance that tempts a radical and
  destructive solution.

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For further reading

• The journal Foundations of Chemistry,
  Philosophical, Historical, Educational and
  Interdisciplinary Studies of Chemistry
• http//www.kluweronline.com/issn/1386-4238
• The Scientist, with sections covering the latest
  issues in DNA sequencing, technology, Gene
  therapy, and stem-cell research
• http//www.the-scientist.com/
• Nanotalk email list, with most major researchers
  in nano and ethics
• http//listserv.sc.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A0nanotalkD1
  FH0ODST1

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Dr. Christine A. James Philosophychjames_at_valdost
a.edu http//teach.valdosta.edu/chjames/chemethic
s2008.htm