Existentialism: Historical Background

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Existentialism: Historical Background

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Title: Existentialism: Historical Background

1
Existentialism Historical Background

Meaning and its locale
Authenticity

2
1.1. Introduction

When I consider the brief span of my life,
swallowed up in the eternity before and behind
it, the small space that I fill, or even see,
engulfed in the infinite immensity of spaces
which I know not, and which know not me, I am
afraid, and wonder to see myself here rather than
there for there is no reason why I should be
here rather than there, now, rather than then.
Pascal, Thoughts of Pascal

Rarely has the existential question been put
more simply or beautifully. In this passage we
see, first, the profound realization of the
contingency of human life, which existentialists
call thrownness. Second, we see Pascal facing
unflinchingly the question of being there or more
accurately, being where? Third, we see the
realization that one cannot take refuge in some
superficial explanation of time and space, which
Pascal, scientist that he was, could well know
and lastly, the deep shaking anxiety arising from
this stark awareness of existence in such a
universe.
May, R. Existence Origins of the Existential
Movement

4
1.2. Definition

Existentialism is not a comprehensive
philosophy, or way of life, but an endeavour to
grasp reality... existentialism is immersed in
and arises directly out of Western mans anxiety,
estrangement, and conflicts. Like psychoanalysis,
existentialism seeks to... utilize these very
conflicts... as avenues to the more profound
self-understanding of Western man.
May, R. Existence Origins of the Existential
Movement
In many ways existentialism is the unique and
specific portrayal of the psychological
predicament of contemporary Western man....
May, R. Existence Origins of the Existential
Movement

5
We can see more clearly the significance of the
term existentialism if we recall that
traditionally in Western thought existence has
been set over against essence. Essence refers
to the greenness of this stick of wood, let us
say, and its density, weight, and other
characteristics which give it substance. By and
large Western thought since the Renaissance has
been concerned with essence. Traditional science
seeks to discover such essences or substances it
assumes an essentialist metaphysics. But it can
only do this by abstraction. The existence of the
given individual thing has to be left out of the
picture.

May, R. Existence Origins of the Existential
Movement.

6
"Existentialism is not a school of thought nor
reducible to any set of tenets. The three writers
who appear invariably on every list of
'existentialists' - Jaspers, Heidegger, and
Sartre - are not in agreement on essentials. Such
alleged precursors as Pascal and Kierkegaard
differed from all three men by being dedicated
Christians and Pascal was a Catholic of sorts,
while Kierkegaard was a Protestant's Protestant.
If, as is often done, Nietzsche and Dostoevsky
are included in the fold, we must make room for
an impassioned anti-Christian and an even more
fanatical Greek-Orthodox Russian imperialist. By
the time we consider adding RiIke, Kafka, Ortega,
and Camus, it becomes plain that one essential
feature shared by all these men is their
perfervid individualism.The refusal to belong to
any school of thought, the repudiation of the
adequacy of any body of beliefs whatever, and
especially of systems, and a marked
dissatisfaction with traditional philosophy as
superficial, academic, and remote from life -
that is the heart of existentialism"

Walter Kaufmann

7
Rejection of the rational man man as thinking
(or even sensing) subject - substitution, the
individual in motion

the division of object and subject
the object as abstract entity
the subject as compartmentalized efficient
industrial man
the division of science and ethics
the relation between outer and inner
fragmentation (Freud)
the slavery of the self (as a substitute (?) for
the slavery of others)?
the division of labour
the reduction of reason to technique

8
The concept of alienation

The created object exists in opposition to the
creator
the father vs the son (mythologically speaking)
dogma vs spirit
the dead hero vs the live individual
history vs the present
untruth is alienation (motivated by cowardice)

9
The vitality of the subjective (value vs
objective fact?)

Truth is not a thing, it is a relationship -- a
manner of being, not a manner of conception.
we cannot be content to view truth
disinterestedly, objectively.
Truth as freedom (for Kierkegaard for Nietzsche,
truth enhances life)
Truth in terms of relationship to the fact and
commitment (demonstrated in action)
Can one live it? All truths are bloody truths to
me. (Nietzsche)

10
Central tenet life as experienced.

exemplar statistical death vs real death
Truth exists only as the individual himself
produces it in action.
Away from Speculation, away from the System, and
back to reality.
Kierkegaard.

11
2.0. Prophets of The Dawning Age

Outline
The Inevitability of Nihilism
The Insufficiency of Reason
The Necessity of Difficulty
The Crowd as the Lie
The Individual as Truth
Influence on Freud
Conclusion

12
2.1. The Inevitability of Nihilism Friedrich
Nietzsche
13
2.1. The Inevitability of Nihilism Friedrich
Nietzsche

Of what is great one must either be silent or
speak with greatness. With greatness - that means
cynically and with innocence. What I relate is
the history of the next two centuries.
I describe what is coming, what can no longer
come differently the advent of nihilism. . . Our
whole European culture is moving for some time
now, with a tortured tension that is growing from
decade to decade, as toward a catastrophe
restlessly, violently, headlong, like a river
that wants to reach the end, that no longer
reflects, that is afraid to reflect.
He that speaks here has, conversely, done nothing
so far but to reflect as a philosopher and
solitary by instinct who has found his advantage
in standing aside, outside.

Why has the advent of nihilism become necessary?
Because the values we have had hitherto thus draw
their final consequence because nihilism
represents the ultimate logical conclusion of our
great values and ideals-because we must
experience nihilism before we can find out what
value these "values" really had.
We require, at some time, new values. Nihilism
stands at the door whence comes this uncanniest
of all guests?

Point of departure it is an error to consider
"social distress" or "physiological
degeneration," or corruption of all things, as
the cause of nihilism. Ours is the most honest
and compassionate age.
Distress, whether psychic, physical, or
intellectual, need not at all produce nihilism
(that is, the radical rejection of value,
meaning, and desirability).
Such distress always permits a variety of
interpretations.
Rather it is in one particular interpretation,
the Christian moral one, that nihilism is rooted.
The end of Christianity-at the hands of its own
morality (which cannot be replaced), which turns
against the Christian God the sense of
truthfulness, highly developed by Christianity,
is nauseated by the falseness and mendaciousness
of all Christian interpretations of the world and
of history rebound from "God is the truth" to
the fanatical faith "All is false" an active
Buddhism.

Skepticism regarding morality is what is
decisive. The end of the moral interpretation of
the world, which no longer has any sanction after
it has tried to escape into some beyond, leads to
nihilism. "All lacks meaning."
(The untenability of one interpretation of the
world, upon which a tremendous amount of energy
has been lavished, awakens the suspicion that all
interpretations of the world are false.)
Nietzsche, The Will to Power

17
2.2. The Insufficiency of Reason Fyodor
Dostoevsky
18
2.2. The Insufficiency of Reason Fyodor
Dostoevsky

In short, one may say anything about the history
of the world - anything that might enter the most
disordered imagination. The only thing one can't
say is that it's rational. The very word sticks
in one's throat.
And, indeed, this is the odd thing that is
continually happening there are continually
turning up in life moral and rational persons,
sages and lovers of humanity who make it their
object to live all their lives as morally and
rationally as possible, to be, so to speak, a
light to their neighbours simply in order to show
them that it is possible to live morally and
rationally in this world.

19
2.2. The Insufficiency of Reason Fyodor
Dostoevsky

And yet we all know that those very people sooner
or later have been false to themselves, playing
some queer trick, often a most unseemly one.
Now I ask you what can be expected of man since
he is a being endowed with such strange qualities?

Shower upon him every earthly blessing, drown him
in a sea of happiness, so that nothing but
bubbles of bliss can be seen on the surface give
him economic prosperity, such that he should have
nothing else to do but sleep, eat cakes and busy
himself with the continuation of his species, and
even then out of sheer ingratitude, sheer spite,
man would play you some nasty trick.
He would even risk his cakes and would
deliberately desire the most fatal rubbish, the
most uneconomical absurdity, simply to introduce
into all this positive good sense his fatal
fantastic element.

It is just his fantastic dreams, his vulgar folly
that he will desire to retain, simply in order to
prove to himself-as though that were so necessary
- that men still are men and not the keys of a
piano, which the laws of nature threaten to
control so completely that soon one will be able
to desire nothing but by the calendar.

And that is not all even if man really were
nothing but a piano-key, even if this were proved
to him by natural science and mathematics, even
then he would not become reasonable, but would
purposely do something perverse out of simple
ingratitude, simply to gain his point.
And if he does not find means he will contrive
destruction and chaos, will contrive sufferings
of all sorts, only to gain his point!

He will launch a curse upon the world, and as
only man can curse (it is his privilege, the
primary distinction between him and other
animals), may be by his curse alone he will
attain his object-that is, convince himself that
he is a man and not a piano-key!
If you say that all this, too, can be calculated
and tabulated, chaos and darkness and curses, so
that the mere possibility of calculating it all
beforehand would stop it all, and reason would
reassert itself, then man would purposely go mad
in order to be rid of reason and gain his point!

I believe in it, I answer for it, for the whole
work of man really seems to consist in nothing
but proving to himself every minute that he is a
man and not a piano-key!
It may be at the cost of his skin, it may be by
cannibalism!
And this being so, can one help being tempted to
rejoice that it has not yet come off, and that
desire still depends on something we don't know?

You will scream at me (that is, if you condescend
to do so) that no one is touching my free will,
that all they are concerned with is that my will
should of itself, of its own free will, coincide
with my own normal interests, with the laws of
nature and arithmetic.
Good Heavens, gentlemen, what sort of free will
is left when we come to tabulation and
arithmetic, when it will all be a case of twice
two make four?
Twice two makes four without my will. As if free
will meant that!
Dostoevsky, Notes from the Underground

26
2.3. The Necessity of Difficulty Soren
Kierkegaard

It is now about four years ago that I got the
notion of wanting to try my luck as an author. I
remember it quite clearly it was on a Sunday,
yes, that's it, a Sunday afternoon. I was seated
as usual, out-of-doors at the cafe in the
Frederiksberg Garden . . .
I had been a student for half a score of years.
Although never lazy, all my activity nevertheless
was like a glittering inactivity, a kind of
occupation for which I still have a great
partiality, and for which perhaps I even have a
little genius.

I read much, spent the remainder of the day
idling and thinking, or thinking and idling, but
that was all it came to... So there I sat and
smoked my cigar until I lapsed into thought.
Among other thoughts I remember these "You are
going on," I said to myself, "to become an old
man, without being anything, and without really
undertaking to do any-thing.

On the other hand, wherever you look about you,
in literature and in life, you see the celebrated
names and figures, the precious and much heralded
men who are coming into prominence and are much
talked about, the many benefactors of the age who
know how to benefit mankind by making life easier
and easier, some by railways, others by omnibuses
and steamboats, others by the telegraph, others
by easily apprehended compendiums and short
recitals of everything worth knowing,
and finally the true benefactors of the age who
make spiritual existence in virtue of thought
easier and easier, yet more and more significant.
And what are you doing?"

Here my soliloquy was interrupted, for my cigar
was smoked out and a new one had to be lit. So I
smoked again, and then suddenly this thought
flashed through my mind
"You must do something, but inasmuch as with your
limited capacities it will be impossible to make
anything easier than it has become, you must,
with the same humanitarian enthusiasm as the
others, undertake to make something harder."

This notion pleased me immensely, and at the same
time it flattered me to think that I, like the
rest of them, would be loved and esteemed by the
whole community.
For when all combine in every way to make
everything easier, there remains only one
possible danger, namely, that the ease becomes so
great that it becomes altogether too great then
there is only one want left, though it is not yet
a felt want, when people will want difficulty.

Out of love for mankind, and out of despair at my
embarrassing situation, seeing that I had
accomplished nothing and was unable to make
anything easier than it had already been made,
and moved by a genuine interest in those who make
everything easy, I conceived it as my task to
create difficulties everywhere.
Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript

32
2.4. The Crowd as the Lie Soren Kierkegaard

There is a view of life which conceives that
where the crowd is, there also is the truth, and
that in truth itself there is need of having the
crowd on its side.
There is another view of life which conceives
that wherever there is a crowd there is untruth,
so that (to consider for a moment the extreme
case), even if every individual, each for himself
in private, were to be in possession of the
truth, yet in case they were all to get together
in a crowd - a crowd to which any sort of
decisive significance is attributed, a voting,
noisy, audible crowd - untruth would at once be
in evidence.

For a "crowd" is the untruth. In a godly sense it
is true, eternally, Christianity, as St. Paul
says, that "only one attains the goal"- which is
not meant in a comparative sense, for comparison
takes others into account.
It means that every man can be that one, God
helping him therein - but only one attains the
goal.

And again this means that every man should be
chary about having to do with "the others," and
essentially should talk only with God and with
himself - for only one attains the goal.
And again this means that man, or to be a man, is
akin to deity.
In a worldly and temporal sense, it will be said
by the man of bustle, sociability, and
amicableness, "How unreasonable that only one
attains the goal for it is far more likely that
many, by the strength of united effort, should
attain the goal and when we are many success is
more certain and it is easier for each man
severally."

True enough, it is far more likely and it is
true also with respect to all earthly and
material goods. If it is allowed to have its way,
this becomes the only true point of view, for it
does away with God and eternity and with man's
kinship with deity.
It does away with it or transforms it into a
fable, and puts in its place the modern (or, we
might rather say, the old pagan) notion that to
be a man is to belong to a race endowed with
reason, to belong to it as a specimen, so that
the race or species is higher than the in
dividual, which is to say that there are no more
individuals but only specimens.

But eternity which arches over and high above the
temporal, tranquil as the starry vault at night,
and God in heaven who in the bliss of that
sublime tranquillity holds in survey, without the
least sense of dizziness at such a height, those
countless multitudes of men and knows each single
individual by name - He, the Great Examiner, says
that only one attains the goal.
Kierkegaard, That Individual Two Notes
Concerning My Work as an Author

37
2.5. The Individual as Truth Friedrich Nietzsche

A traveler who had seen many countries and
peoples and several continents was asked what
human traits he had found everywhere and he
answered men are inclined to laziness.
Some will feel that he might have said with
greater justice they are all timorous. They hide
behind customs and opinions.
At bottom, every human being knows very well that
he is in this world just once, as something
unique, and that no accident, however strange,
will throw together a second time into a unity
such a curious and diffuse plurality he knows
it, but hides it like a bad conscience-why?

From fear of his neighbor who insists on
convention and veils himself with it.
But what is it that compels the individual human
being to fear his neighbor, to think and act
herd-fashion, and not to be glad of himself?
A sense of shame, perhaps, in a few rare cases.
In the vast majority it is the desire for
comfort, inertia-in short, that inclination to
laziness of which the traveler spoke.

He is right men are even lazier than they are
timorous, and what they fear most is the troubles
with which any unconditional honesty and nudity
would burden them.
Only artists hate this slovenly life in borrowed
manners and loosely fitting opinions and unveil
the secret, everybody's bad conscience, the
principle that every human being is a unique
wonder they dare to show us the human being as
he is, down to the last muscle, himself and
himself alone - even more, that in this rigorous
consistency of his uniqueness he is beautiful and
worth contemplating, as novel and incredible as
every work of nature, and by no means dull.

When a great thinker despises men, it is their
laziness that he despises for it is on account
of this that they have the appearance of factory
products and seem indifferent and unworthy of
companionship or instruction.
The human being who does not wish to belong to
the mass must merely cease being comfortable with
himself let him follow his conscience which
shouts at him
"Be yourself! What you are at present doing,
opining, and desiring, that is not really you.
Nietzsche, Untimely Meditation on Schopenhauer as
Educator

41
Authenticity

Kierkegaard antipathy to the mass man
the inauthentic subject has become his own
object the pathology of self-consciousness
Nietzsche will to power
Mans task is simple he should cease letting his
existence be a thoughtless accident.... In the
Gay Science, Nietzsche hits on a fomulation which
brings out the essential paradox of any
distinction between self and true self What
does your conscience say? - You shall become who
you are.
Kaufman, Walter.

42
3.0. Conclusion Part One

And why are you so firmly, so triumphantly,
convinced -that only the normal and the
positive-in other words, only what is conducive
to welfare-is for the advantage of man? h not
reason in error as regards advantage?
Does not man, perhaps, love something besides
well-being? Perhaps he is just as fond of
suffering? Perhaps suffering is just as great a
benefit to him as well-being? Man is sometimes
extraordinarily, passionately, in love with
suffering, and that is a fact.

43
3.0. Conclusion Part One

There is no need to appeal to universal history
to prove that only ask yourself, if you are a
man and have lived at all. As far as my personal
opinion is concerned, to care only for well-being
seems to me positively ill-bred.
Whether it's good or bad, it is sometiines very
pleasant, too, to smash things. I hold no brief
for suffering nor for well-being either. I am
standing for . . . my caprice, and for its being
guaranteed to me when necessary.
Suffering would be out of place in vaudevilles,
for instance I know that.

In the Palace of Crystal" it is unthinkable
suffering means doubt, negation, and what would
be the good of a "palace of crystal" if there
could be any doubt about it? And yet I think man
will never renounce real suffering, that is,
destruction and chaos.
Why, suffering is the sole origin of
consciousness. Though I did lay it down at the
beginning that consciousness is the greatest
misfortune for man, yet I know man prizes it and
would not give it up for any satisfaction.
Dostoevski, F. (1864). Translated by Walter
Kaufmann

45
Utopia the crystal palace
46
3.0. Conclusion Part Two

We are now in a position to see the crucial
significance of the existential psychotherapy
movement. It is precisely the movement that
protests against the tendency to identify
psychotherapy with technical reason.
We have seen that Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, as
well as the representatives of the existential
cultural movement following them, not only
contributed far-reaching and penetrating
psychological insights, which in themselves form
a significant contribution to anyone seeking
scientifically to understand modern psychological
problems, but also did something else - they
placed these insights on an ontological basis,
namely, the study of man as the being who has
these particular problems.

47
3.0. Conclusion Part Two

They believed that it was absolutely necessary
that this be done, and they feared that the
subordination of reason to technical problems
would ultimately mean the making of man over in
the image of the machine.
May, Origins.

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