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Title: "Minorities in Europe


1
"Minorities in EuropeSession 8 Russian
minority in abroad. The case of the Baltic States
  • Denis Gruber
  • Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
    University
  • DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

2
Classical American Sociology of migration
  • Assimilation Integration
  • a one-side process which has to be fulfilled by
    migrants / ethnic minorities (cf. Sellin 1938,
    Park/Burgess 1921)
  • the goal is full assimilation of migrants and
    their descendants
  • cultural adaptation of migrants to the culture of
    the majority society
  • 5 stages of race relation cycle (Robert E. Park
    / Ernest W. Burgess 1921)
  • migration into a new territory
  • after a peaceful phase of becomming acquainted a
    competition for short ressources arise
  • results in a conflict
  • segregation and separation of the ethnic group
    and increased interethnic contacts and
    intermingling (melting pot)
  • full assimilation adisbandment of ethnic group(s)

3
Newer American Sociology of migration
  • Shmuel N. Eisenstadt (1954) 3 stages of
    assimilation of Jews in Israel
  • migration and absorption of minorities (absolute
    adaptation of the members of diaspora)
  • minorities have to orientate by re-sozialisation
    to the norms of the majority society and old
    (traditional) norms do not have further relevance
  • absorption is more an exception than a rule what
    results in stratification of the minority
    societies

4
Newer American Sociology of migration
  • Gordon (1964) assimilation as a 7th stage
    process, but not all stages have to be passed by
    immigrants because there is not a logical order
    of stages
  • main focus on passing a structural assimilation
  • Integration of minorities depends on their
    capabilities to incorporate in institutions of
    the majority society
  • assimilation is often not succesful because it
    stops at the behavioral level
  • melting pot- conzept has failed because
    segregation and isolation by US American society
    hinder one-sided expectations of assimilation
  • integration does not only depend on the will of
    minorities or migrants, but also by the will of
    the majority society and nation-state integration
    policy to eleminate ethnic discrimination and to
    guarantee the same law for all citizens

5
Newer American Sociology of migration
  • in the following years more and more a view was
    constructed that integration is not only a
    singular task of migrants or minorialso an active
    participation of the members of the majority
    society
  • Ronald Taft (1957) Stage model of assimilation
    contradicts the formal adaptation of only one
    unit to the other one and emphasizes the
    possibility of mutual adaptation, which takes
    place by interactions and parallel existence of
    the groups
  • assimilative social integration depends on
    contextual conditions of the host state

6
Hartmut Esser - Assimilation
  • Assimilation is not a political concept of
    ethnic or cultural adaptation
  • adoptation of different groups in certain
    characteristis as language ability and filling
    of jobs
  • assimilation does not mean absolute equality of
    actors because also the domestic population is
    not homogenous
  • important is the fact that there are no
    systematic differences in the distribution of
    certain characteristics and ressources
    fordifferent groups in one society
  • assimilation means dissolution of systematic
    differences between groups and categories, but
    not the equality of individuals in every
    department
  • there can be social inequalities but not between
    ethnic groups!
  • domestic and minority population participate
    equally at laws and ressources of a society
    (Esser 200121 f.)

7
Annett Treibel (1999
  • Assimilation is not the state or result of
    adaptation but a process of gradual adaptation
  • for Heckmann (1992) the will for acculturation of
    migrants is a necessary but not sufficient
    condition for integration ? results often in
    accomodation ? refers to a gradual form of
    assimilation
  • learning and adaptation processes of persons
    which by a change of location have to appropriate
    basic means and rules of communication and
    activity of the new society and knowledge of
    institutions and belief systems to be able for
    interaction and working (Heckmann 1992 168)
  • Aus dieser Definition geht hervor, dass sich
    Migranten und ethnische Minderheiten einen
    bestimmten Fundus von Wissensbeständen und
    Qualifikationen aneignen, der für die
    Kommunikation in der Mehrheitsgesellschaft
    notwendig ist, allerdings brauchen sich hierdurch
    nicht notwendigerweise die Denkweisen, Werte,
    Vorlieben und Ãœberzeugungen der Migranten und
    Minderheitenakteure zu verändern.

8
Assimilation or Integration
  • Asimilaton adaption of language, cultural
    traditions, norms, behavior patterns of the host
    society
  • in contradiction to cultural and ethnic pluralis
  • Integration processes by which migrants or
    minorities will be accepted members of the host
    society
  • mutual process which have to be fulfilled by
    minorities and majority
  • requires efforts and good will

9
Integration
  • Interactions by actors and actors interaction in
    the social system
  • Integration depens on the willingness of migrants
    and/or ethnic minorities as well as orientations
    and problem solutions of the titular society
  • Integration requires the disappearing of ethnic
    discrimination and the acceptance of the same
    laws for ethnic majorities as well as minorities
    (Gordon, 1964252)

10
Integration
  • is() a process of political and social
    inclusion of the excluded, and was defined in
    an operational way as a process of removing
    barriers which prevented non-Estonians from
    participating in the local social and political
    life, from being competitive in the labour
    market, and from taking advantage of the
    opportunities of the Estonian educational
    system. (Lauristin/Heidmets 2002b 324)

11
  • noticeable in this view on integration is that
    the propagate approach of the Estonian government
    does not distinguish between Integration and
    Inclusion
  • No difference between systemic Integration and
    social integration of migrants and/or members
    of ethnic groups
  • Common understanding of integration and
    inclusion means that the individual integration
    process in the Lebenswelt is similarily to the
    inclusion in the Estonian titular society
    (special rights, occupying of certain positions,
    appropriation of important societal ressources)
  • therefore it is important to distinguish between
    the complex processes of systemic and social
    integration of the Russian Minority in Estonia

12
  • use of the integration approach of German scholar
    Hartmut Esser (1999, 2001)
  • differs between social and systemic integration
  • allows to focus on processes of inclusion and
    exclusion of ethnic minorities
  • on the one hand, social and systemic integration
    can be distinguished as single units, but
    otherwise systemic integration is pursued by
    actors interaction
  • In this way, the sociological differentiation of
    social system theory and actors theory have
    to be seen as an interplay, because actors are
    able to consolidate and change social systems

13
Systemic Integration
  • takes place independently (anonymiously) from the
    motives and relationships of individual actors
  • refers to the integration in a social system like
    integration in the world-market, nation-state,
    international concerns, corporative actors or
    supra-national entities like the EU
  • refers to particular mechanisms of the market,
    institutioanl laws of the nation-state and
    particular media resources (not mass media, but
    money)

14
Social Integration
  • focuses on motives, orientations, and purposes of
    individual actors,
  • refers to the embedding process of individual
    actors in a social system
  • is associated with the grant of laws, learning of
    the titular populations language, embedding in
    the education system and the national employment
    market, interethnic friendships and
    identification with the nation-state
  • my thesis succesful social integration of
    ethnic minorities can not only be evaluated by
    their embedding in the Lebenswelt but also by
    their inclusion in the sub-systems of the social
    system of the titular society and possibilities
    to control important resources in state and
    society

15
Spheres of Social Integration
  • titular society
  • ethnic community in the titular society (Russian
    group in Estonia)
  • Society of origin (kinship, ethnic networks,
    transnatonalism, translocalism)

16
Four types of social integration
  • plural integration integration in the titular
    society as well as in the ethnic community and
    the society of origin
  • segmentation / segregation integration in an
    ethnic milieu (Chinese in New York, Turkeys in
    Berlin) ? establishment of We-Groups
  • marginalisation Park (1928, marginal man)
    disintegration in the titular society as well as
    in the society of origin/ethnic community ?
    processes of self-exclusion, no language
    assimilation, marginal interactions and
    identification with the own ethnic community as
    well as members of the titular society
  • assimilation dominant model of integration in
    European societies

17
Dimensions of social integration
  • Placement
  • societal position of migrants and/or ethnic
    minorities in a social system e.g. labour
    market positions
  • important for pursuing ressources
  • bounded to certain laws, like citizenship,
    election laws
  • Culturation
  • process of adoptation
  • necessary knowledge and qualifications for the
    interaction in the titular society, like language
  • often results in acculturation semi or partial
    culturation

18
Acculturation
  • exchange of cultural features that results when
    groups of individuals having different cultures
    come into continuous first hand contact
  • original cultural patterns of either or both
    groups may be altered, but the groups remain
    distinct (cf. Kottak 2007)
  • anthropologists Redfield, Linton and Herskovits
    (1936, p. 149) developed the oft quoted
    definition
  • "Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which
    result when groups of individuals having
    different cultures come into continuous
    first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in
    the original culture patterns of either or both
    groups".

19
Dimensions of social integration
  • Interactions
  • helpful for minority actors to come in contact
    with the members of the titular society
  • Identification
  • emotional/identificative orientation of actors
    with the titular society as well as the society
    of origin

20
Ethnic Russian Minority in Estonia
  • have an ethnic Russian migration background (even
    descendants of migrations migrants of the 2nd or
    3rd generation)
  • have citizenship of Estonia, Russia or are
    stateless
  • are using the Russian language in everyday life
    as primary language

21
The question of citizenship
  • members of the Russian group have been divided in
    two sub-groups
  • Those who have been already lived in the First
    Estonian Republic f(1918-1940) and their
    descendants)
  • those who were comming to ESSR as labourforce in
    the course of the industrialisation process
  • last group has been classified by conservative
    Estonian Politicians as a threat for the achieved
    national souveranity and where called from now on
    Aliens

22
Alien
  • Term Alien (Estonian muulane) is used for a
    person of another nationalitaty (Alien Law by
    July 1992)
  • An alien is a person who is not an Estonian
    citizen and aliens staying in Estonia are
    guaranteed rights and freedoms equal to those of
    Estonian citizens unless the constitution, this
    Act, other Acts or international agreements of
    Estonia provide otherwise. Aliens are guaranteed
    the rights and freedoms arising from the
    generally recognised rules of international law
    and international custom. Aliens staying in
    Estonia are required to observe the
    constitutional order and legislation of Estonia.

23
Statelessness
  • main problem of exclusive citizenship regulations
    refers to the large number of non-citizens in
    Estonia
  • marker for lacking placement in the political
    system of Estonia (cf. Barrington 1995,
    Poleshchuk 2004, Semjonova 2001), emphasized also
    by UNHCR (2007a) und Amnesty International (2006)
  • although the number of stateless has decreased
    from ca. 400,000 in 1991 to 124,681 in 2007, a
    rising stagnition for citizenship by
    naturalization is obvious (cf. EMFA 2005)
  • more than the half of applicants are minors of
    which more than one third passed the language and
    citizenship test (ibid.)
  • on the average more than 60 per cent of
    apllicants pass the waystage user-Test (cf.
    Tomusk 2002 46)
  • relatively low success rate has to be traced back
    to the fact that individual efforts and
    test-specific requirements have to be fulfilled
    to get Estonian citizenship
  • otherwise one has to give attention to the fact
    that ca. 275,000 ethnic Russians who have been
    stateless did not decide for Estonian but for
    Russian citizenship

24
Connection between citizenship and ressources
  • What are the reasons that ethnic Russians decide
    for Estonian citizenship?
  • What are the reasons that ethnic Russians decide
    for Russian citizenship?
  • What are the reasons that ethnic Russians in
    Estonia decide to stay stateless?

25
Reasons for application for Estonian citizenship
and its functions
  • by Estonian citizenship comprehensive political
    rights (e.g. right to vote) and possible upward
    moility in high political and administrative
    positions can be reached
  • those ethnic Russians without Estonian
    citizenship are missing automatically lower
    political rights of participation
  • non-citizens of Estonia do not have the
    possibility to practice active and passive
    electoral rights by the election of the Estonian
    national assembly
  • they also do not have the passive electoral right
    in local elections
  • Non-Estonians do not can candidate for political
    positions and administrative positions as well as
    do not can work in leading positions of state
    enterprises (cf. EP 2000)
  • only Estonian citizens can be member of Estonian
    political parties what complicate the
    representation of interest of non-citizens (cf.
    Elsuwege 2004 26)

26
Reasons for application for Estonian citizenship
and its functions
  • ethnic Russians are conscious about their
    decission to apply for Estonian citizenship or
    not
  • will to become an Estonian and will for placement
    (political inclusion) depends on very rational
    motives and criteria
  • to be a full member of the Estonian society
  • to have better chances on the Estonian and EU
    labour market
  • to give children a better future and career
    chances
  • to be EU-citizen and not be exluded from taking
    part in elections (elections of the European
    Parliament)
  • for younger stateless persons a trend is obvious
    that a decission pro Estonia offers
    opportunities
  • possibilities to travel in EU without barriers
    and to study and work there

27
Reasons for application for Russian citizenship
and its functions
  • three main reasons
  • Measures of Russias diaspora policy
  • existence of social networks
  • appropriation of economic advantages
  • Appropriation of pension entitlements
  • Economy of Citizenship

28
  • Russias diaspora policy
  • particularities in the bilateral relations
    between Russia and Estonia lies in the fact that
    both have a different general view on history
    (cf. Budryte 2005, in 2006, Wehner 2006)
  • Baltic States show for Putins Russia the
    biggest tragedy of the 20th century (Putin
    quotes in Wehner 2006), because the internal
    erosion of the Soviet state strted with the
    independence attempts of the Baltic states
  • quintessential point of the historical quarrel
    refers to the fact that Putin does not recognise
    the occupation of the Baltic states by Stalin as
    a result of the confidential additional protocol
    of the Molotow-Ribbentrop- pact.
  • Putins Russia looks at the annexation of the
    Baltic States by the Soviet army as a voluntary
    act to join the Soviet Union
  • Estonia emphasizes mass deportations, suppression
    and terror during the Soviet occupation (cf.
    Wehner 2006).
  • to accept the full independence of the Baltic
    states (cf. Kolstø 1995)
  • Russia protests regularly against citizenship
    regulations concerning its minority and against
    the restrictive language policy, loss of
    importance of Russian language and regulations
    concerning electoral laws (cf. Dorodnova 2000)
  • highlighting the fact of ethnic discrimination
    (cf. Hughes 2005) and continuing Russiaphobie"
    (cf. Long 2003)

29
  • Russias diaspora policy
  • some authors (Dittmer 2003, Kolstø 1995) find out
    that the loyalty of ethnic Russians with the
    members of the Estonian titular society is rather
    low, because Estonia like Latvia did not grant
    citizenship automatically after independence
  • On the other hand, Russia granted already in 1991
    every ethnic Russian in the successor states of
    the SU the possibility "automatically" to accept
    the Russian citizenship (cf. Mironov/Mironov
    2003) ? but since 2001 "automatic citizenship
    was not furthermore granted
  • nevertheless, since 2003 Russia recognised that
    demographic changes (natural ageing and sinking
    birth rates) require to find new solutions for
    ethnic Russians abroad (Russian Diaspora in the
    successor states of the SU) (cf. NOVOSTI 2006c)
  • By specific recruitment of members of the
    Diaspora in the former Soviet republics the
    demographic problem beyond the metropolises
    Moscow and St. Petersburg shall be solved (cf.
    Pörzgen 2007)
  • as a result the conditions of entry and coming
    home to Russia as well as citizenship-specific
    regulations (restrictions) were eased for Russian
    "compatriots (cf. NOVOSTI 2006d)

30
  • Russias diaspora policy
  • Putin
  • We know about the fact that the overwhelming
    majority of Russians and other ethnic groups from
    the Russian federation do not live abroad because
    they it wish We will do everything to help
    those who want to come back to their motherland
    We must to deal with realities which
    determine the life. Above all, it is about the
    return of our compatriots in such territories of
    today's Russia which urgently need manpower ()
    The level of moving allowance depends on the need
    of manpower in the regions. Where the need is
    especially big, the move money will be more.
    (Putin quotes in Pörzgen 2007)
  • In October 2006, the coordination gremium of the
    Russian compatriots was founded at the world
    congress of compatriots in St. Petersburg (cf.
    NOVOSTI 2007a)
  • President Putin asked 600 delegates from nearly
    80 countries for vigorous support of his
    voluntary remigration programme (cf. RIAN 2007a)
  • Only in 2007, 4,6 milliard roubles from the
    household of the federation were provided to
    finance moving allowance and to support job
    searches and school choice

31
  • Russias diaspora policy
  • in RDP is strong emphasis on the identity concept
  • Kortunow (199715) speaks about a selective
    engagement, which gives returns to a
    construction of an Ethnic-Russian, more precise
    Rossianian identity, and uses for this symbolic
    acts, e.g. the visit of a delegation of Duma
    members after the quarrel about the dismantling
    of the Soviet memorial in Tallinn in April, 2007
  • this conflict about the demolition of the
    soldier's monument makes in all sharpness clear
    that Russia anytime is able to mobilize above all
    younger ethnic Russians in the close foreign
    countries (Savoskul 2001)
  • selectice engagment means a policy of
    pinpricks To be 'selective' means to use
    different rules in different situations, to
    abstain from every universal approach, to
    renounce general rules (Kortunov 1997)
  • proponents of selective engagement assume that
    Russia does not have enough resources to rebuild
    the Russian or previous Soviet empire or to build
    up a security system on the territory of the
    former Soviet Union, but
  • on the other hand, Russia can not afford a
    isolationistic policy, that is why selective
    engagement reffering to neighbouring states
    means first of all to show several regional and
    subregional arrangements with different degrees
    of Russian participation (Kortunow 199715)

32
  • Russias diaspora policy
  • not only by symbolic acts, also by financial
    support Russia is supporting its diaspora
  • in 2007 approx. 10 million Euro were given abroad
    to support the organisation of school holidays,
    the care of veterans, supply of literature and
    cultural activities (cf. RIAN 2006a, RIAN 2006b),
    material and ideological support of the Russian
    language and education of teachers (cf. Simonow
    2004)
  • especially the financial engagement for the
    Russian language should be a factor to attract
    ethnic Russians in the near abroad to decide
    for Russian citizenship and to (re)-migrate to
    Russia
  • Many Russians in Estonia still think that they
    are a part of this big Russian community and also
    a part of this big culture as well as the big
    Russian history, especially if they have Russian
    citizenship. I also think that this a part of our
    national problems here in Estonia. Of course, a
    lot of Russians have problems to speak and or to
    communicate in Estonian and use their mother
    tongue in everyday life () It is also quite
    difficult for older people to learn Estonian
    language. Many of them already live in Estonia
    their whole life and during the Soviet time they
    did not need to learn the Estonian language,
    because they always used Russian. I think that
    the language is the basic reason, why they decide
    for Russian citizenship. (Interview 27)

33
reasons that ethnic Russians in Estonia decide to
stay stateless
  • self-exclusion of ethnic Russians not to become
    full members of Estonia
  • personal deprivation ? social isolation of
    certain individuals or groups as a result of
    dicontent, seclusion, shortages and services
  • negative experiences ? personal frustration
  • difficult social situation
  • desinterest in politics
  • weak identification with Estonia
  • disenchantment with politics
  • critic about language test and citizenship
    procedures
  • appropriation of state welfare support

34
"Minorities in EuropeSession 9 People
with Migration Background in Germany
  • Denis Gruber
  • Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
    University
  • DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

35
German nationality law
  • German citizenship is based primarily on the
    principle of Jus sanguinis
  • one usually acquires German citizenship if a
    parent is a German citizen, irrespective of place
    of birth
  • significant reform to the nationality law was
    passed by the Bundestag in 1999, and came into
    force on 1 January 2000
  • new law makes it somewhat easier for foreigners
    resident in Germany on a long-term basis, and
    especially their German-born children to acquire
    German citizenship

36
German nationality law
  • Birth in Germany
  • Children born on or after 1 January 2000 to
    non-German parents acquire German citizenship at
    birth if at least one parent
  • has a permanent residence permit (and has had
    this status for at least 3 years) and
  • has been residing in Germany for at least 8
    years
  • Such children will be required to apply
    successfully to retain German citizenship by the
    age of 23
  • they do not hold any foreign citizenship

37
German nationality law
  • Descent from a German parent
  • People born to a parent who was a German citizen
    at the time of birth are usually German citizens
    does not matter whether they were born in Germany
    or not
  • those born after January 1, 1975 are Germans if
    the mother or father is a German citizen
  • Those born before January 1, 1975 could normally
    only claim German citizenship from the father and
    not the mother
  • Exceptions included cases where the parents were
    unmarried (in which case German mothers could
    pass on citizenship) or where the German mother
    applied for the child to be registered as German
    on or before 31 December 1977
  • those born outside Germany to a German parent who
    was also born outside Germany after 1999 will
    need to be registered as German citizens within
    12 months of birth
  • Persons who are Germans on the basis of descent
    from a German parent do not have to apply to
    retain German citizenship by age 23

38
German nationality law
  • Naturalisation as a German citizen
  • naturalisation by those with permanent residence
    who have lived in Germany for 8 years
  • additional requirements include an adequate
    command of the German language and an ability to
    be self-supporting without recourse to welfare
  • Exceptions to the normal residence requirements
    include
  • a spouse of a German citizen may be naturalised
    after 3 years residence in Germany. The marriage
    must have persisted for at least 2 years
  • persons who have completed an integration course
    may have the residence requirement reduced to 7
    years
  • refugees and stateless persons may be able to
    apply after 6 years residence
  • former German citizens

39
German nationality law
  • Victims of Nazi persecution
  • people who lost German citizenship under the Nazi
    regime (mainly German Jews) may be eligible for
    naturalisation without requiring residence in
    Germany or renunciation of their existing
    citizenship
  • Children and grandchildren of such persons may
    also be eligible for German citizenship
  • German-born children
  • children who were born in Germany in 1990 or
    later, and would have been German, were entitled
    to be naturalised as German citizens
  • child was required to apply for retention of
    German citizenship by age 23 and normally show
    that no other foreign citizenship was held at
    that time

40
German nationality law
  • Loss of German citizenship
  • A German child adopted by foreign parents, where
    the child automatically acquires the nationality
    of the adoptive parents under the law of the
    adoptive parents' country
  • German citizen who voluntarily serves in a
    foreign army (over and above compulsory military
    service) from 1 January 2000 may lose German
    citizenship unless permission is obtained from
    the German government
  • Persons acquiring German citizenship on the basis
    of birth in Germany (without a German parent)
    lose German citizenship automatically at age 23
    if they have not successfully applied to retain
    German citizenship
  • when a German citizen voluntarily acquires the
    citizenship of another country
  • two exceptions
  • When the German citizen acquires a nationality
    from within the European Union, Switzerland, or
    another country with which Germany has a
    corresponding treaty
  • When permission to obtain a foreign citizenship
    has been applied for and granted in advance of
    foreign naturalisation

41
German nationality law
  • Dual citizenship
  • can only be held in limited circumstances
  • where a child born to German parents acquires
    another citizenship at birth (e.g. based on place
    of birth, or descent from one parent)
  • where a German citizen acquires a foreign
    nationality with the permission of the German
    government
  • where a naturalized German citizen, or a child
    born to non-German parents in Germany, obtains
    permission to keep their foreign nationality

42
  • 4. Historical Development of Migration (contd)
  • Typs of ethnic minorities
  • ethnic Germans
  • ethnic German immigrants from Balkan and former
    SU
  • labour migrants
  • 2006 60 of foreigners are labour migrants
  • 1980 75
  • Refugees
  • 490.000 recognized refugees
  • 200.000 open applications for asylum
  • Illegale Immigrants
  • without permits
  • 150,000 1,000,000

43
  • 4 stages of German Migration History after WW II
  • Stage of Recruiting (1955-73)
  • Agreements with Mediteranian Countries
  • foreign labour force instead of integration of
    women in labour market
  • (as in GDR)
  • stop of immigration from GDR
  • Rotationsprinzip
  • Stage of consolidation (1973-80)
  • recruitment stop 1973 until 2000
  • Familiennachzug
  • first steps of integration Department for
    Integration
  • In 1980s Asylum seeking
  • defensive measures (1981-98)
  • limitation of asylum seekers
  • silent metamorphose of guest workers to
    immigrants
  • stage of acceptance (1998-)
  • 1.1.2000 liberal, open citizenship law
  • Greencard for IT-Specialists
  • Federal Department for Foreigners, Migrants and
    Refugees

44
a) Anwerbeverträge (Vgl. Treibel, 1999 56)
1955 Italien
1960 Spanien, Griechenland
1961 Türkei
1963 Marokko
1965 Tunesien
1968 Jugoslawien
Reports
45
Recruitment of Guest Workers
  • starts in the 1950s til the mid 1970s
  • In 1955 first recruitment contract
    Anwerbevertrag with Italy
  • entrepreneurial, wage-political and job
    market-political considerations were decisive,
    although unemployment in 1955 was with 1.1
    million or 7 relatively high (cf. Treibel,
    199955)
  • Besides, the employment of foreigners should only
    be a temporarily appearance ? political ideology
    of Guest worker" employment
  • By the recruiting principle of rotation "young",
    "fresh" foreign workers should be available for
    the West-German economy
  • The recruiting nation-states, enterprises and
    recruited workers assumed themselves that they
    remain certain time in the recruiting country to
    save money for independent existence or long-term
    acquisitions and sooner or later to return to
    their country of origin (ibid55)

46
Recruitment of Guest Workers
  • There was a need for unqualified manpower for
    dirty and or badly paid work
  • recruited workers were employed in those branches
    of the secondary sector which became more and
    more unattractive for local employees and female
    employees, thus, e.g., in the mining, in
    constructions, metal industry, textile industry
  • furthermore, a need for the tertiary sector
    health service and gastronomy
  • "foreign workers" were accommodated often in mass
    accommodations, camps and hostels
  • Guest workers are therefore functional for the
    structural change of the German labour system,
    because they allowed the rise of the local
    manpower. (Treibel, 199956)

47
Recruitment of Guest Workers
  • in 1966/67 rise of unemployment rate in Western
    Germany
  • in 1973 stop of labour force recruitment and
    rotation principle
  • A new phase of the West German foreigners policy
    consolidation
  • Until the end of the 1970s numerous restriction
    and adaptation measures took place (1974
    reference regulation, 1975 Child benefit
    regulation immigration stop)
  • aim which was pursued was not furthermore to
    replace old" foreign manpower by new ones and
    final remigration of labourforce in their
    homelands
  • number of the foreign employees decreased 2.6
    million in 1973 (year of the highest level) to
    1.6 million in 1984

48
Recruitment of Guest Workers
  • In the 1970s also the process of migration of
    foreign employees families has started (family
    reunification)
  • Longer duration of stay, better living
    conditions and unrestricted possibilities of
    entry and leaving of the border, and this is
    especially important, the return possibility, led
    to the fact that foreign workers began to reunite
    their families. (Korte/Schmidt, 198317)
  • Anwerbestopp of 1973 had caused the opposite
  • When the foreigners had understood that from now
    on a return was correctable definitively, not
    more like during former years by a renewed
    recruitment, a part of them began to organize the
    reunification of the family. Especially strongly
    this was observed for Turks. While in Greece,
    Spain and Portugal consolidated their economies,
    the economic and social situation in Turkey
    became from year to year worse. (ibid. 19)
  • Turks expected, stricter regulations for family
    reunification could follow, and, therefore,
    brought in their families to Germany

49
Migration from Turkey 1961-73
  • German Turkish arrangement about the recruitment
    of manpower started on 30.10. 1961
  • the Turkish military government intended by a
    limited emigration to relieve the labour market,
    to bring in urgently required foreign currency.
    and to promote the economic modernisation of
    Turkey by know-how of the certified repatriates
  • from 1961 to 1973 German enterprises employed
    about 710,000 manpower from Turkey
  • rotation principle which limited the work permit
    to two years was also in interest for the Turkish
    government to control the migration flows and to
    use certified manpower in the country after
    remigration
  • under the pressure of the German economy the
    rotation principle was dropped already in 1962
    formally and was stopped in 1964

50
Migration from Turkey 1973-93
  • The second military putsch in 1980 in Turkey was
    a new turning point after 1973
  • from now on migrants from Turkey came as regime
    opponents to Germany
  • in the 1980s the number of those immigrants was
    125,000 people
  • another reason for the migration to Germany was
    the economic situation (e.g. rate of unemployment
    18 percent)
  • Besides, a return to the native country was
    irreversible for Turkish migrants because of
    the non-membership in the EC there was no
    freedom of movement. Therefore, the time for
    returning to Turkey was shifted. Because also the
    medical care as well as the school education and
    professional training in Germany were better the
    stay duration rose on and on. (ibid. see 11)

51
Movements into and out of Germany by Germans and
foreign nationalsfrom 1991 to 2006
Sources Federal Statistical Office, together
with our own calculations
52
"Minorities in EuropeSession 10 Ethnic
Minorities in South-Eastern and South-Western
Europe
  • Denis Gruber
  • Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
    University
  • DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

53
Migration in the EU
  • present immigration situation among EU member
    states is highly heterogeneous
  • European Statistical Office (Eurostat) data for
    2007 indicate the continuation of highly
    differing forms of immigration
  • clear shift in the relationship between old and
    new immigration countries
  • Thus countries on the southern border of the EU
    (Spain and Italy) are experiencing the highest
    level of immigration
  • even the Czech Republic, a new member, has
    already overtaken the traditional receiving
    countries of central and northern Europe
  • only the Baltic States, Bulgaria and Poland show
    negative immigration balances, although even the
    Netherlands recorded more emigration than
    immigration in 2007

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Migration in the EU
  • percentage of foreign population in the EU member
    states extends from less than 1 of the total
    population (Slovakia) through to 39 (Luxemburg)
  • In most countries, however, the foreign
    percentage is between 2 and 8 of the total
    population
  • in all EU member states excluding Luxemburg,
    Belgium, Ireland and Cyprus, the majority of the
    foreign population is made up of so-called third
    country nationals, i.e. non-EU citizens

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Migration in the EU
  • strong differences with regard to the legal
    categories on which the immigration flows are
    based
  • labour migration dominates in countries with less
    regulated labour markets (e.g. the United
    Kingdom, Ireland, the Czech Republic and Denmark)
  • in most other states family reunification
    represents the strongest immigration category
    (especially apparent in France and Sweden)
  • Italy and Germany adopt a middle position, i.e.
    similar percentages are attributable to labour
    migration and family reunification, although in
    Germany other migration also makes up a large
    percentage ? Spätaussiedler (ethnic German
    immigrants from the countries of the former
    Soviet Union)
  • in Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands, Turkish
    citizens make up the biggest group of foreigners
  • by contrast, citizens of former colonies are
    numerous in Portugal (Cape Verde, Brazil and
    Angola) and in Spain (Ecuador and Morocco).

58
Migration in the EU
  • majority of foreigners in Greece are from Albania
  • majority in Slovenia from other parts of the
    former Yugoslavia
  • citizens from the former Soviet Union are most
    significant among the foreign populations of
    Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
  • in most of the member states immigration is
    dominated by the low skilled
  • only the United Kingdom records almost equal
    percentages of highly and low-skilled migrants
  • in Italy, Austria and Germany, by contrast,
    immigration is dominated now as ever by the lower
    skilled

59
Spain
  • Languages Spanish (Castilian), Catalan
    (regional), Basque (regional), Galician
    (regional)
  • Population (2008) 46,063,511 (INE, Padrón
    municipal1)
  • Foreign population (2008) 5,220,577 Persons
    (11.3 ) (INE, Padrón municipal)
  • Percentage of foreign employees amongst gainfully
    employed 14.4 (1/2008)
  • Unemployment rate 9.6 (1/2008), 8.6 (4/2007),
    8.3 (4/2006) (INE, Encuesta de Población Activa)
  • Unemployment rate of foreign population 14.6
    (1/2008), 12.4 (4/2007), 12.0 (4/2006) (INE,
    Encuesta de Población Activa)
  • Religions 35 mln. Catholics (77 ), approx. 1.2
    mln. Protestants and free churches (2.7 ),
    approx. 1.1 mln. Muslims (2.4 ), approx. 48 000
    Jews (0.1 ) (estimations, International
    Religious Freedom Report 2007)

60
Spain
  • From emigration country to immigration country
  • history of Spanish migration over the last five
    hundred years has mostly been a tale of
    emigration
  • Traditionally, waves of emigrants have headed to
    Latin America, with flows peaking at the
    beginning of the 20th century
  • from 1905-1913, 1.5 million Spaniards left the
    country for Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and
    Venezuela
  • following interruptions stemming from the World
    Wars and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
  • between 1946 and 1958, about 624,000 people left
    the country for overseas
  • approximately 300,000 people joined this final
    wave of emigration to Latin America between 1958
    and 1975

61
Spain
  • Northern and Western European countries began to
    recruit foreign workers
  • Spain became a source country of the guest
    workers needed by France, Germany and, later,
    Switzerland
  • economic and energy crises of 1973/74 led to the
    end of foreign labour recruitment by those
    countries, resulting in a drastic reduction in
    emigration from Spain
  • from 1960 to 1975, approximately two million
    Spaniards migrated to other European countries
  • from the mid-1970s to 1990, approximately 15,000
    people per year went to other European countries
    through Spains controlled emigration programme
  • majority of these migrants went to Switzerland
    and, to a lesser extent, France for a period of
    less than a year
  • number of people sent abroad through the
    controlled emigration programme declined
    drastically following Spains entry into the EU
    (1986)

62
Spain
  • Spains foreign population has been increasing
    slowly since the middle of the 1980s
  • In the beginning, Northern and Western Europeans,
    in search of a (retirement) residence in a warmer
    climate, accounted for a considerable proportion
    of incoming migrants
  • overall migration trends have changed, with
    increased levels of south-north migration from
    the Third World and, after the fall of the Iron
    Curtain, east-west migration from Central and
    Eastern Europe
  • these new trends, combined with a period of
    prolonged economic growth in Spain, have led to a
    rise in the number of migrant workers entering
    Spain

63
Spain
  • In 1975, there were approximately 200,000
    foreigners living in Spain
  • number increased fivefold in the following 25
    years to reach 1 million by the end of the
    century
  • in 2007, around 3.98 million foreigners were in
    possession of a residence permit
  • foreigners represented 11.3 of the total
    population of 46.1 million at the beginning of
    2008
  • high level of immigration has been responsible
    for Spains considerable population growth
  • countrys population grew by 2.1 from 2004 to
    2005, 1.4 from 2005 to 2006, 1.1 from 2006 to
    2007 and 1.9 from 2007 to 2008

64
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe
  • participation of minorities in public life is
    essential
  • to ensure that their particular concerns are
    taken into account
  • to enable them to influence the general direction
    of development of society
  • participation in social and economic life enables
    them to take care of their needs through their
    own active contribution
  • investigation in South East European (SEE)
    countries shows
  • a wide range of mechanisms in connection with
    minority participation and representation,
    adjusted to the relevant situations in practice
  • mechanisms vary from federalism, through
    territorial autonomy, proportional electoral
    systems and guaranteed minority seats in
    parliament and on advisory boards to various
    committees and commissions

65
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe
  • suggestions
  • if minorities are effectively represented in
    public affairs, discriminatory standards and
    practices can be more readily eliminated
  • effective participation of minorities in various
    areas of public life is essential for the
    development of a truly democratic, cohesive,
    inclusive and just society
  • effective participation of minorities in
    decision-making processes, is a fundamental
    precondition for the full and equal enjoyment of
    the human rights of persons belonging to
    minorities

66
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe
  • what is the state in SEE-countries?
  • both differences and common ground with regard to
    political parties representing minorities
  • every country has political parties representing
    minorities and for them, ethnopolitical
    mobilization is the main agent of organization
  • such parties provide for the political
    participation of minority groups, but tend to be
    mono-ethnic, attracting support only from the one
    ethnic group they represent
  • such parties are a stronger factor in local
    politics than in national politics, due to their
    voter base
  • influence exerted by parties representing
    minorities on the policy process is dependent on
    the importance of the party in the country which
    vary across SEE

67
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe
  • Romania
  • Ethnic minorities comprise more than 10 of
    Romanias total population
  • Minorities in Romania can be divided into three
    categories, mainly taking the size of the
    minority group into consideration
  • Hungarians, the most numerous and politically
    well organized
  • Roma, the second most numerous with several
    political organizations to represent them
  • 18 other minority groups with at least one
    political organization per group
  • Romanian Constitution guarantees one seat in the
    lower house of Parliament for each minority group
    whose candidates cannot gather enough votes to
    enter the Parliament in accordance with the
    electoral system (Article 59)
  • Through this clause, in the 2004-2008 Parliament
    18 minority groups had representatives in
    Parliament
  • With exception of the Democratic Alliance of the
    Hungarians in Romania (DAHR), which was able to
    gain enough votes to win seats in Parliament, the
    other organizations representing minorities have
    benefited from this provision

68
"Minorities in EuropeSession 11 and 12
The Informal Sector, Minorities and Ethnic
Minority EntrepreneurshipTheoretical Approaches,
Empirical Findings in Russia and Europe
  • Denis Gruber
  • Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
    University
  • DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

69
Informal Sector definition
  • term "informal sector" has been used to describe
    a wide spectrum of activities, which do not
    necessarily have much in common
  • tax evasion, corruption, money laundering,
    organised crime, bribery, subsistence farming,
    barter etc.
  • concept was introduced by the ILO (International
    Labor Office) in a study on Kenya in 1972
  • often the term is used to refer to economic
    activities that take place outside a given
    recognized and legal institutional framework
  • activities in the IS generate an income that is
    both not taxed and not controlled by the legal
    institutions which regulate the legal sphere
  • following Bernabè (2002) it refers to small
    either unregistered and unregulated activities,
    or activities concealed in order to avoid tax
    payment, or even activities producing goods and
    services forbidden by the law

70
Describing the Informal Sector
  • Differences to the Formal Sector
  • smaller scale of enterprises and production units
    (varying from individuals, single households to
    enterprises with a few employees)
  • lower complexity of the production process
  • use of high technology and expensive energy to a
    much lesser extent
  • less division of labour
  • lower capital-intensity
  • wages that are not based on the working time but
    on quantities (number of produced pieces)
  • high fluctuation of employees
  • production that is located in the housing/ living
    space or on the streets
  • high degree of Insecurity

71
Describing the Informal Sector
  • ILO World Employment Programme Report puts the
    following characteristics
  • ease to entry
  • reliance on indigenious ressources
  • family ownership of enterprises
  • small scale of operation
  • skills aquired outside the formal school system
    and unregulated and competetive markets.
  • but following Kumar and Jena the above mentioned
    characteristics lack validity, because one has to
    focus on rural and urban as well as regional and
    international differences

72
Linkages between the Formal and Informal Sector
  • earlier studies show a clear distinction between
    the informal and the formal sector
  • recent studies emphasize that both sectors cannot
    be dealt with as two separate and independent
    spheres
  • Indeed there exists a number of linkages and
    interdependencies
  • Following Singh (1996) one can find upward
    vertical linkages and downward vertical
    linkages
  • Downward vertical linkages, e.g. sale of goods
    and services from the formal to the informal
    sector
  • upward vertical linkages, e.g. sale of goods
    and services from the informal to the formal
    sector

73
Linkages between the Formal and Informal Sector
  • example subcontracting requires cheap and
    flexible employees, i.e. workers who are not
    bound to stable working contracts and social
    insurances, it leads to price cuts of the
    informal produced goods and the low status of the
    respective employees (Singh 199650)
  • the fact that many informal enterprises
    nevertheless work on a sub-contract-basis for the
    formal economy indicates that the informal sector
    is to a large extent dependent on external
    orders

74
The Informal Sector in Russia
  • worsening of formal employment conditions,
    reduction in real wages and quasi absence of
    social security
  • during the first decade of transformation a lot
    of households with working age member fall into
    poverty
  • "new phenomenon of "working poor" has become
    wide-spread
  • facing negative economic conditions, Russian
    population has to change its behaviour on the
    labour market selfemployment, moonlighting and
    informal activities have become a reality for
    many individuals (Kim, 2002)
  • since 1998 the number of persons working in the
    IS increased

c.f. Beuran/Kalugina 2006 Social exclusion and
the informal sector the case of Russia
75
The structure of informal employment in Russia
  • among all types of informal employment the major
    input over 50 comes from the employees of
    informal sector
  • self-employed, multiple job holders and
    incompliant formal sector employees account
    respectively for 21, 13, and 15

76
The structure of informal employment in Russia
  • age structure of informal employment by gender
    shows that the highest informal employment rates
    are observed among younger age groups
  • c.f. Merkuryeva, Irina (2006) Informal
    Employment in Russia Combining Disadvantages and
    Opportunities, Discussion Paper, CENTRE FOR
    ECONOMIC REFORM AND TRANSFORMATION, School of
    Management and Languages, Heriot-Watt University,
    Edinburgh, p.7

77
The structure of informal employment in Russia
  • Informal employment on average provides lower
    wage rates as well as lower monthly wage amounts

c.f. Merkuryeva, Irina (2006) Informal
Employment in Russia Combining Disadvantages and
Opportunities, Discussion Paper, CENTRE FOR
ECONOMIC REFORM AND TRANSFORMATION, School of
Management and Languages, Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, p.8
78
The structure of informal employment in Russia
  • the prevalence of formal employment 90 is
    observed in the organizations owned by different
    levels of government
  • 50 of the employees of private sector are
    employed on informal basis
  • 10 of municipal and 8 of federal and regional
    employees work informally

c.f. Merkuryeva, Irina (2006) Informal
Employment in Russia Combining Disadvantages and
Opportunities, Discussion Paper, CENTRE FOR
ECONOMIC REFORM AND TRANSFORMATION, School of
Management and Languages, Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, p.9
79
Infomal Sector does not automatically mean
Informal Practices!!!
80
Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship
  • Denis Gruber
  • Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
    University
  • DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

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87
Who is an entrepreneur?
  • Gartner (1989) ()the entrepreneur is the one
    who creates an organization.
  • organizations are created all the time by people
    who are not entrepreneurs (e.g., political
    parties, associations, and social groups)
  • Gartner criticizes Carland et. al.s (1984, 358)
    definition of entrepreneur An entrepreneur is
    an individual who establishes and manages a
    business for the principal purposes of profit and
    growth
  • Hebért Link (1989, 47) conclude that ()
    entrepreneur is a person, not a team, committee
    or organization
  • Pickle Abrahamson (1990, 5,9) introduce a
    compact definition of an entrepreneur An
    entrepreneur is one who organizes and manages a
    business undertaking, assuming the risk, for the
    sake of profit. The entrepreneur evaluates
    perceived opportunities and strives to make the
    decisions that will enable the firm to realize
    sustained growth.
  • ? this definition does not include any process
    characteristics thought to be important at least
    in high growth ventures

88
Definitions of Entrepreneurship
  • four main concepts concepts
  • entrepreneur is an individual actor in the market
  • focusing on the entrepreneurial spirit to analyze
    the behavior in the market
  • entrepreneurship is put into the centre and
    attempts to combine the actor (entrepreneur) and
    the behavior in the market
  • emphasizing the entrepreneurial process and
    combining time dimension and behavior in the
    market
  • 1Nevertheless, no commonly accepted definitions
    of the entrepreneur, entrepreneurial (behavior)
    or entrepreneurship exist
  • one of the best definitions of entrepreneurship
    is found in Ronstadt (1984, 28)
  • Entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of
    creating incremental wealth. The wealth is
    created by individuals who assume the major risks
    in terms of equity, time and/or career commitment
    or provide value for some product or service. The
    product or service may or may not be new or
    unique but value must somehow be infused by the
    entrepreneur by receiving and allocating the
    necessary skills and resources.

89
Ethnic entrepreneurship studies
  • split into two types of discussion (Greene et
    al., 2003)
  • apart of an underserved minority population that
    needs business assistance to guide venture small
    businesses and development
  • models of entrepreneurial approaches by certain
    ethnic groups are not lauded but adopted for
    trial by other types of communities, whether
    those communities be natural or artificially
    created
  • The concern over the definition of ethnic
    entrepreneurship has been increasing over the
    past few years
  • Minority entrepreneurs are business owners who do
    not belong to the majority population
  • A minority may not (necessarily) be an immigrant
    and may not share a strong sense of group
    solidarity with an ethnic group, in terms of a
    shared history, religion, or language (Basu, 2002

90
Georg Simmel as starting point?
  • Simmels conception of the stranger has opened
    minority discussions
  • Simmel was using the term stranger to describe
    a person arriving in a new geographical location
    and becoming classified as a minority by dint of
    race, religion, or ethnicity
  • According to Butler and Greene (1997), these
    early scholars developed ideas based on
  • the stranger as trader
  • the social structure of society
  • the value systems produced
  • religious tenets
  • These explained fundamental issues led to the
    emergence of a theoretical framework for ethnic
    entrepreneurship

91
Approaches to Ethnic Entrepreneurship
  • Enclave Theory
  • Middleman Theory
  • Theories of Immigration
  • Ethnic-controlled economy

92
Enclave Theory
  • is concerned with immigrants, entrepreneurship
    and labor market issues (Nee Nee, 1986)
  • adherents maintain that ethnic enclaves, as well
    as being economically and culturally linked, have
    historically been geographically based (cf.
    Menzies, 2003)
  • an ethnic economy that is clustered around a
    territorial core
  • Cultural identity is key
  • Businesses and customers proactively and
    significantly recapture spending along ethnic
    lines and at all levels
  • Examples Coreatown, Chinatown, Bombaytown

93
Middleman Theories
  • cf. Bonacich, 1973 Bonacich Modell, 1980
    Waldinger et al., 1990
  • middlemen are between elites and the broad mass
    on societal level
  • considered as mediators between producers and
    consumers on economic level
  • they do business and are less committed
    themselves to the sphere of production
  • Middlemen theories deal with emerge and
    formation of these minorities
  • formations are a reaction to the animosity of the
    native population ? hence, group pride and mutual
    help are developing which prevent that group
    members will be economically isolated
  • other views middlemen minorities claimed as a
    kind of lock-up persons between elites and the
    broad mass ? for economic survival the group
    members turn to self-employment and business
    creation activities that generally have low
    barriers to entry and a high degree of liquidity
    (Greene et al., 2003)
  • in Middleman Theories the focus is on trading
    peoples residing in diasporas
  • define ethnic entrepreneurship as a set of
    connections and regular patterns of interaction
    among people sharing common national background
    or migration experiences (Waldinger et al., 1990)

94
Theories of Immigration
  • focus on the elements and models of the business
    creation process for immigrant entrepreneurs
    (Menzies, 2003
  • term diaspora is often used
  • Diaspora does not only refer to its Greek origin
    referring to migration and colonization but
    also to the voluntary residence without any
    colonialist motives within a country if there is
    a strong cohesion by collective identities
  • Robin Cohen calls different features for
    diasporas
  • scattering from a home country to at least two
    other regions
  • scattering occurs often involuntary and
    traumatically but, however, can also occur
    voluntary
  • members of diaspora share collective memory and
    myth about their home country and idealize this
    and his history
  • it results in a return movement
  • strong self-group consciousness is developing
  • relationships to native population are
    pr
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