HUMAN FACTORS

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HUMAN FACTORS
CANADIAN COAST GUARD AUXILIARY - PACIFIC
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Why Human Factors?

• Since search and rescue units often have to
  perform their duties in adverse conditions,
  mishaps or errors are bound to happen.
• These errors can sometimes have disastrous
  consequences.
• Technical errors have been shown to be involved
  in less than 25 of accidents.

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Human Error

• In search and rescue terms this is when the wrong
  action or bad decision is not discovered and is
  uncorrected.
• Inaction and indecision can also become human
  errors.

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Profile of a Good SAR Team
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Profile of a Good SAR Team

• Individuals that are good at teamwork
• 1. Communicate clearly and precisely
• 2. Accept challenges and know how to respond to
  them
• 3. Use appropriate short term strategies
• 4. Have the right balance between authority and
  assertiveness
• 5. Know how to control their workload

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Profile of a Good SAR Team

• 6. Manage to find a balance between performance
  and people orientated styles
• 7. Can maintain an adequate level of alertness
• 8. Have sound judgement and, usually, good
  decision-making skills

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Communication
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Communication

• This is a key factor, since misunderstandings are
  so common.
• What may be a clear message transmitted by the
  one end, is not what is heard by the receivers.
• Sometimes what is heard, is not what was said.

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Communication

• Communication has to be open in that everyones
  opinions are welcome.
• They also need to be interactive which means
  everyone is participating in the communication
  process.

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Communication

• The next step is closed loop communication.
• 1. The sender sends the message.
• 2. The recipient acknowledges by repeating all
  the important information.
• 3. Finally the sender confirms the accuracy of
  what the recipient said.

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Briefing
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Briefing

• Briefings can minimize the risk of confusion and
  should be used when planning anything requiring
  active participation by another member of the
  team
• The rules for briefing are
• 1. Make the time
• 2. Be open and friendly
• 3. Anyone can conduct the briefing
• 4. The briefing must be interactive

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Briefing

• 5. Define responsibilities
• 6. Use closed loop communications
• 7. Keep focused
• 8. Ensure that no question remains unanswered

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De-briefing
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Debriefings

• A debriefing should conducted as soon after a
  mission as possible
• 1. The coxswain should conduct the debriefing and
  should indicate his mistakes first
• 2. Everybody should remain objective
• 3. Evaluate positive and negative aspects of your
  performance
• 4. Try to learn from your mistakes

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Debriefings

• 5. Avoid finger-pointing. Talk about team
  performance
• 6. Keep the briefing interesting
• 7. Prepare plans for the next time you encounter
  a situation like this one
• 8. Keep a cordial, informal atmosphere

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Challenge and Response
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Challenge and Response

• People who challenge can be seen as a problem in
  a team.
• However some challenges can be useful, and it has
  been shown that a lack of challenges is involved
  in more than 30 of marine accidents.

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Steps in a Challenge

• Challenging a concept usually involves the
  following steps
• 1. A concept is stated and limits are set
• 2. The situation progresses and moves outside the
  limits that were set
• 3. A challenge is issued
• 4. A proper response is formulated

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Example of a Challenge

• Coxswain We will turn to port at the fourth red
  buoy.
• Crew Port at the fourth red buoy.
• Coxswain Thats right!
• Coxswain OK - lets turn to port now.
• Crew But dont we have to another buoy to pass
  before we turn?!
• Coxswain Oops, youre right. One more buoy.

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Example of a Challenge

• Another example of where a challenge would be if
  your depth sounder showed 2 metres and the
  plotter showed 20 metres.

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Taking Advantage of Challenges

• Challenges should be allowed and welcomed in a
  team.
• Always challenge when you feel you are moving
  outside the original concept.
• Be diplomatic when you formulate a challenge.

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Answering Challenges

• Always check the validity of the challenge. Use a
  third source of information if necessary.
• Be cautious, especially in emergency situations.
  The challenge may be valid.
• Be diplomatic when you formulate a response to a
  challenge. Never laugh at or belittle or get
  angry with someone who has issued an invalid
  challenge - if you do so, the person may no
  longer challenge when you need it.

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Obstacles to Challenges

• The challenger
• is a quiet person or lacks confidence
• is not assertive.
• puts the coxswain on a pedestal
• does not understand something.
• does not like responsibilities.
• is involved with interpersonal conflicts.
• has had bad experiences with inappropriate
  responses to previous challenges.

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Obstacles to Challenges

• The receiver
• feels that their authority is threatened by
  challenges.
• lacks confidence.
• responds emotionally
• has poor communication skills.
• has poor management skills.

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Short Term Strategies
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Short Term Strategies

• Short term strategies are defined as plans that
  are developed to solve a particular problem,
• They should be used where time permits to solve
  any problem that is not covered by standard
  operating procedures.

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Short Term Strategies

• They require
• 1. Identify the problem.
• 2. Develop plans to deal with the problem.
• 3. Check the plans with the team in a briefing.
• 4. Explain the plan and get commitment.
• 5. Monitor the correct use of the plan.
• 6. Modify the plan if the conditions change or
  further information becomes available.

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Authority and Assertiveness
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Authority and Assertiveness

• The right level of authority needs to be found
  for each team.
• To much authority can be a too little.
• There two kinds of authority
• 1. Formal authority - coxswain or captain s
  authority
• 2. Personal authority - is that which makes
  people to listen to ones suggestions - wisdom,
  professionalism, integrity, honesty and diplomacy

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Authority and Assertiveness

• Using formal authority to command attention
  should be avoided
• Assertiveness - someone who is assertive is able
  to voice their concerns. Too much or too little
  assertiveness can be bad.

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Authority and Assertiveness 1

• Situation Coxswain with strong authority and
  crew with weak assertiveness.
• The strong authority of the coxswain will
  intimidate the crew.
• This is a one person team.

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Authority and Assertiveness 1

• Coxswain Lets go this way and take a shortcut
• Crew But to express concern regarding shallow
  depth in this area.
• Coxswain I said we are going this way. Whats
  your problem?
• Crew Nothing sorry.

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Authority and Assertiveness 2

• Situation Coxswain with weak authority and crew
  with strong assertiveness.
• This is probably the least dangerous of the four
  situations where the strong assertiveness of the
  crew compensates for the coxswains lack of
  authority.

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Authority and Assertiveness 2

• Coxswain You are leaving the channel if you go
  this way.
• Crew It doesnt matter. The water is deep
  enough.
• Coxswain But I would prefer if we could
  remain in the channel
• Crew I said its deep enough. Its not the
  first time Ive been this way.
• Coxswain OK, OK, if you are so sure

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Authority and Assertiveness 3

• Situation Coxswain with strong authority and
  crew with strong assertiveness.
• This can cause serious conflicts amongst the
  team.
• The coxswain and crew will argue constantly.
• The coxswain may have to use his formal authority
  to end the altercation.
• This situation is dangerous and stressful.

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Authority and Assertiveness 3

• Coxswain You are leaving the channel if you go
  this way.
• Crew It doesnt matter.The water is deep
  enough.
• Coxswain I dont want you to leave the channel
  - is that clear?
• Crew Read my lips IT IS DEEP ENOUGH FOR US TO
  GO IN THERE.
• Coxswain I am in command here, so do as I say.

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Authority and Assertiveness 4

• Situation Coxswain with weak authority and crew
  with weak assertiveness.
• This is the probably the most dangerous
  situation, as no one is willing to take the
  necessary decisions or actions.

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Authority and Assertiveness

• Coxswain Im not sure, but I think we just left
  the channel.
• Crew Should I slow down?
• Coxswain I dont know Wait I cant find our
  position
• Crew You got it?
• Coxswain Not yet .. Lets wait a bit .. We
  should see something that will help us.
• Crew OK,

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CRUNCH!The boat runs up on a submerged rock and
is damaged
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Authority and Assertiveness

• None of the 4 situations are ideal, so be
  vigilant for the situation forming.
• If you want someone to become assertive, the
  appropriate working environment needs to be
  created - it may be necessary to lower the level
  of authority.
• If you want someone to be less assertive, you may
  want to increase authority (increasing personal
  authority is better than formal authority).

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Management Styles
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Management Styles

• The management style of the coxswain can have a
  profound effect on the behaviour , performance
  and well being of a team.
• The following approach to analyzing this is based
  on performance and people

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Management Style 1

• Tiger Style
• High on Performance / Low on People
• Characteristic
  Effect on the Team
• Believes in performance
  Silent team low level of communication
• Often has too much authority Low
  assertiveness of team members
• Has a high opinion of themselves No
  challenges
• Does not care about what others may think
  Performance may decline
• Does not care about teamwork Team
  morale may get low
• Great leader in crisis Team
  members will not take many
• Takes full responsibility for their decisions
  initiatives
• Is loyal to the team
• Does not like challenges
• May have a tendency to do or control everything
• Does not delegate easily

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Management Style 2

• Penguin Style
• Low on Performance / High on People
• Characteristic
  Effect on the Team
• Is a good listener
  Friendly and calm working atmosphere
• Forgives easily, probably to avoid conflicts
  General lowering of professional standards
• Is always positive, even when results are False
  feeling of adequacy on the team
• unsatisfactory, and learning opportunities
• are lost because of this lack of objectivity
• Believe that people are more important than
  Team members that are high on
• performance. If people are well treated,
  performance might get annoyed
• they will necessarily do a good job.
  Little training is done with the team
• Like to talk with everybody has a tendency
  Leader does not command respect
• to accept lower professional standards so
  because of inability to provide objective
• that everybody can do well and
  constructive feedback

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Management Style 3

• Snail Style
• Low on Performance / Low on People
• Characteristic
  Effect on the Team
• Serious lack of motivation
  All effects are negative
• Is not really interested in their job
  Worst management style
• Has a tendency to to do the minimum Low team
  morale
• Avoids conflicts Professional standards can
  get dangerously
• Has a low opinion of their own capabilities
  low
• and those of the team Very little
  training is done
• Has low professional standards, both personally
• and for the team
• Poor communicator and weak authority
• Does not use short term strategies
• Can often hide personal ineptitude by avoiding
  risks

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Management Style 4

• Sheep Style
• Average on Performance / Average on People
• Characteristic
  Effect on the Team
• Adapts quite well to surroundings
  Promising management style
• Generally accepts challenges Everyone
  feels something is missing
• Communication is good but no excellent Team
  morale is good, but could be better
• Concerned by performance but not enough Team
  performances are good but not
• May compromise performance or team morale
  excellent
• to achieve personal goals Average
  training
• Occasionally uses short term strategies

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Management Style 5

• Dolphin Style
• High on Performance / High on People
• Characteristic
  Effect on the Team
• Combines the best of tiger and penguin
  Best management style
• Is capable of adjusting personal style to any
  Training is a priority
• situation Excellent team morale
• Good communications and briefings Team is
  confident
• Accepts challenges easily All members of
  the team have good self
• Almost always uses good short term esteem
• strategies Professional standards
  are very high
• No problem delegating Team members are
  motivated
• Knows strengths and weaknesses of team
• members
• Believes it it is always possible to do better

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Management Styles

• The ideal management style is the dolphin, but
  other styles do have some advantages.
• In a emergency, the tiger style may be ideal for
  creating order out of chaos.
• On the other hand, with inexperienced people it
  may be good to be more of a penguin.
• During periods of low activity a sheep may even
  be adequate.

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Management Styles

• If you feel that your coxswain is not an ideal
  manager, you as crew can help this change.
• If your coxswain is a tiger, try and persuade
  them that their performance would increase with
  less authority.
• If your coxswain is penguin, emphasize that you
  would feel better if the team performance
  improved.
• A sheep will probably understand both arguments

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Workload
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Workload

• To be efficient, you need to control your
  workload.
• If you get overloaded on a mission, you will be
  under stress and then your work performance will
  be adversely affected.

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Workload

• Consequences of an overload situation
• 1. duplication of effort, without being aware of
  it.
• 2. increase of errors.
• 3. increase in level of authority with increasing
  workload.
• 4. tunnel vision, with individuals focusing on
  important tasks and may miss important details.
• 5. Generalised bad mood and impatience.

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Workload

• 6. lowered attention to tasks.
• 7. lowered attention to tasks.
• 8. delegation decreases as workload increases.
• 9. Short term strategies are neglected.
• 10.decrease in communications (no one has time to
  talk).

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Workload

• Ways to lighten the workload
• 1. Decrease the number of tasks to be
  accomplished.
• 2. Decrease the weight of individual tasks.
• 3. Increase the time available for accomplishing
  the tasks.

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Decreasing Tasks

• The best way to reduce the number of tasks is to
  delegate.
• When you delegate a task to crew, you can both
  train, and you show that person that you trust
  their abilities.
• However you should be careful as to how much you
  delegate, so you dont overload someone less
  experienced.

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Delegation

• Effective delegation includes
• 1. Decide what tasks you can delegate.
• 2. Decide who is suited to performing those
  tasks.
• 3. Plan your delegating strategy.
• To delegate you must know the skills of your
  crew.
• Ideally those delegated tasks should become
  opportunities for learning.

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Delegation

• Choose the person for the task you wish to
  delegate.
• Inform other team members that this task has been
  delegated.
• Be prepared to give all necessary support to the
  person who has taken on the delegated task, but
  not too much so that they become discouraged.
• Show appreciation

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Delegation

• Show appreciation when someone does a great job,
  by a reward or by giving more responsibilities.

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Combating Reasons Not to Delegate

• If you want something to be done properly, do it
  yourself.
• True - it takes time to learn a new job but you
  had to learn - remember?

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Combating Reasons Not to Delegate

• By the time I showed him, I could have done it
  twice....
• Again speed with quality wont come right away.

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Combating Reasons Not to Delegate

• I like doing this job, and Im good at it, so
  why should I delegate?
• With practice, you will also get to like the job
  of delegating.
• How did you learn to do this job?

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Combating Reasons Not to Delegate

• What if he makes mistakes?
• Sometime you need to let people make mistakes.
  Mistakes are not usually critical.

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Combating Reasons Not to Delegate

• I will lose control.
• You will actually increase your control because
  you will be able to get more done within the same
  amount of time.

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Decrease the Weight of Individual Tasks

• The best way to achieve this is training, as
  difficult tasks may become easier to perform.
• Checklists may be useful for tasks involving many
  steps.

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Increase Time Available for Accomplishing the
Tasks

• When you are on the vessel, the best way to
  increase time is slow down.
• By reducing the number of tasks you directly
  increase the time available for the other tasks.

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State of a Team
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State of a Team

• If your team gets bored or inattentive,
  performance will suffer markedly.
• Stress and Panic will affect your team the same
  way.

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State of a Team

• There are six states in which a team can find
  itself
• 1. Optimum state 1
• 2. Concerned state 2
• 3. Alarmed state 3
• 4. Bored state -1
• 5. Inattentive state -2
• 6. Inattentive at a critical phase -3

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State of a Team

• In emergency situations, the state of your team
  might have a tendency to rise.
• You need to try to keep your team in a 1 state,
  by using techniques previously described
• Use short term strategies, make time, ensure good
  communications and use briefings.
• These measures may help you to relieve pressure.

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State of a Team

• 1. Optimum state
• In this state your workload and stress are
  appropriate. You do not have to fight to stay
  awake. You are motivated and efficient.
• 2. Concerned state
• Both your workload and stress levels are going
  up. You are starting to wonder whether you can do
  everything in a timely manner. Your worries begin
  to affect your productivity.

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State of a Team

• 3. Alarmed state
• You are overloaded. There is no doubt that you
  cannot complete everything on time, and you are
  looking for ways to rectify this.
• It is hard to think about all this while you
  still have to work.
• You need to concentrate to control your extreme
  stress level and panic

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State of a Team

• 4. Bored state
• Workload is low and you have nothing to do.
• Things have been this way for a while, and your
  level of attention and motivation is getting
  quite low.
• Fatigue begins to take its toll.

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State of a Team

• 5. Inattentive state
• This is where boredom and carelessness combine to
  produce a dangerous mix.
• You are making mistakes and really feel the
  necessity to correct them.
• If you dont do something quickly, the next
  mistake could lead you into a critical situation
• What is worse you may not even notice that you
  are in trouble.

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State of a Team

• 6. Inattentive at a Critical Phase
• You are now in trouble and you dont know it.
• Eventually you will wake up and understand what
  is going on, and if you are lucky there will be
  time to do something.
• If you are not, you will have to face the
  consequences of your lack of attention.
• Usually there will be a period of confusion.

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Judgement and Decision Making
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Judgement and Decision Making

• To develop judgement, you need a good decision
  making process.
• 1. Vigilance
• This be aware that things may not go as planned.
  Vigilance therefore can minimize the risk of
  being caught unaware.
• 2. Problem discovery
• This needs to be dome quickly otherwise there may
  be no chance to use judgement.

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Judgement and Decision Making

• 3. Problem diagnosis
• On discovery, understanding how and why the
  problem happened.
• 4. Alternative generation
• Find a solution, and solution is good. Find as
  many solutions as possible.
• 5. Risk analysis
• Analyze the risk associated with each solution
  and pick the best.

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Judgement and Decision Making

• 6. External influences
• When choosing a solution, you are likely to be
  influenced by external factors. These influences
  may push you toward a less than ideal solution.

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Judgement and Decision Making

• These external factors may include
• 1. Economic factors (e.g. its too expensive)
• 2. Responsibilities (e.g. I promised.. I have
  to..)
• 3. Peer pressures (e.g. everybody is doing it I
  have to be like the others)
• 4. Physical status (e.g. fatigue, illness )

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Judgement and Decision Making

• 5. General attitude
• These can seriously affect a persons judgement,
  and some are considered dangerous
• a. anti-authority (e.g. Dont tell me what to do
  I dont have to follow the rules )
• b. impulsiveness (e.g. Do something QUICK!)
• c. invulnerability (e.g. It wont happen to me)

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Judgement and Decision Making

• 5. General attitude
• d. excess confidence (e.g. I can easily do it!)
• e. resignation (e.g. Whats the point it wont
  change anything..)
• f. narrow mindedness (e.g. Ive been doing
  things this way for the past 3 years and Im not
  about to change.)
• g. lack of initiative (e.g. Its not my job to
  so this.

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Judgement and Decision Making

• 5. General attitude
• h. laziness (e.g. That should be enough Nobody
  will notice )

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Judgement and Decision Making

• 6. Hidden pressures
• These are simply pressures that you are not
  aware of, from past experiences, fears and
  beliefs.
• You need to identify hidden pressures, and a
  good way of doing this, is to ask yourself,Why
  am I doing this?

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Judgement and Decision Making

• 7. Decision
• You have decided what is the best solution and
  you are ready to act. Conduct a briefing.
• 8. Action
• Translate plans into actions.
• 9. Monitoring
• Monitor the effectiveness of the solution, and
  apply any corrective measures if necessary.

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Image and Attitude
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Image and Attitude

• The image you project and attitude you have when
  doing search and rescue can have a profound
  impact on the efficacy and safety of your unit.
• How you present yourself with appearance and
  actions to others around you is important.

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Heroism A Dangerous Attitude

• A heroic attitude is not needed in a rescue
  situation, and is no help to anyone.
• Anyone willing to risk their life on a SAR
  mission should stay home, as the last thing a SAR
  team needs is the risk of another victim on its
  hands.

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Professionalism

• The strangers who you go out and assist, need to
  feel that they can put their trust in you.
• Therefore you need to act and look like a
  professional. Part of that is your image.
• Professional If something that someone does is
  professional, it is done well, and is of a very
  high standard.

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Professionalism

• To be professional you need to have the skills
  that are necessary to translate the knowledge
  into action.

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Professionalism

• People involved in SAR must work with
• Other people (crew, RCC coordinators, etc)
• Boats and outfit (engines, GPS, radios, etc)
• Equipment (SAR equipment)
• Aids to navigation, charts etc.
• People requiring assistance or in distress

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Professionalism

• As a result SAR personnel need to
• work in teams
• use the available equipment
• navigate
• provide first aid
• perform related tasks

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Professionalism

• To identify skills, a list of the situations that
  may be encountered by SAR personnel is the most
  appropriate tool. These will include
• cold water, rain, fog, winds
• currents, shallow water, deep water, heavy seas,
  waves
• fire and explosions
• lack of sleep / fatigue, stress
• hypothermia

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Professionalism

• SAR personnel must be skilled enough to handle
  combination of the above items, such as
• Vessel in fog, strong currents, and provide
  skilled first aid when under stress.

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Professionalism

• There are many ways of acquiring knowledge.
• Experienced personnel can pass on their
  knowledge.
• Taking courses, station training.
• Skills are usually acquired through practice.
  People who practice a lot will usually be more
  more skilled.
• Reading will provide the knowledge, but practice
  will forge the skill.

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Acting in a Professional Manner

• Skill and knowledge cannot be readily assessed by
  an observer.
• Evaluating level of knowledge and skill usually
  requires observing someone for a while.
• This cannot assessed on first impression.

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Acting in a Professional Manner

• No matter how knowledgable, skilled and
  experienced a crew may be, if image and attitude
  are no professional, the first impression will be
  bad

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Image

• The image of the SAR crew and vessel will have a
  profound impact on first impression.

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Image

• Person and Clothing
• Any stains
• Appropriate? (no swimsuits)
• Properly worn (avoid unbuttoned shirts etc)
• Personal grooming

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Image

• Vessel
• Is it clean?
• Is it in good repair?
• Is it properly maintained?
• Equipment
• Is it properly stowed?
• Is it in good condition and reliable?

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Crew Attitude

• The attitude of a SAR crew in how they act or
  respond is as important as their image
• Be polite and treat people with respect
• Be positive - smile
• Stay calm and look confident
• Be careful with gestures, stand straight, look
  people in the eye, and avoid using sunglasses
  when talking to them.
• Treat others as equals

102
Knowledge and Skills

• Your knowledge level will be revealed by the way
  you answer questions.
• Your skill level will be revealed by the way you
  carry out the various evolutions when you and
  your crew go into action.
• People will judge your competency based on their
  own level of knowledge and skills.

103
Vessel Operation

• The way the vessel is operated out on the water
  whether on a mission or during training will
  reflect on the publics view of the auxiliary.
• If you navigate in a reckless manner, all your
  efforts trying to be professional are wasted.

104
Vessel Operation

• Navigating in a professional manner means
• Observing the collision and other regulations
• Avoiding passing to close to other vessels
• Manoeuvring in a way that will clearly show your
  intentions
• Avoiding riding the wake of other vessels and
  intentionally jumping waves
• Manoeuvring at a safe and reasonable speed
• Showing courtesy

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Vessel Operation

• Courtesy should be shown to other people on the
  water by
• Slowing down when passing close to other vessels
• Manoeuvring at slow speed in marina or near docks
• Avoiding excessive noise in marinas at night
• Do not overtake less manoeuvrable vessels in
  narrow areas

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Critical-Incident Stress Management
107
Critical-Incident Stress Management

• Critical Incident Stress can result from SAR
  personnels exposure to extremely difficult
  situations.
• Pacific region has a counseling service to our
  SAR crews who are exposed to critical incidents.
• This will normally be activated by Joint Rescue
  Coordination Centre.

108
Critical-Incident Stress

• This is the reaction of a human being to a
  critical incident. These can include
• death or severe injury
• suicide or sudden death of a co-worker
• multiple casualty incidents
• incidents where victims seriously injured
• prolonged rescue or recovery operation,
  especially involving children or where the victim
  is known to the rescuer

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Critical-Incident Stress

• situations with intense media coverage and
  scrutiny
• situations of violence in the workplace

110
Critical-Incident Stress

• The following situations are specific to
  maritime SAR operations
• recovery of bodies
• witness of a suicide
• operating in full view of public and/ or media
• failing to succeed in a rescue attempt
• failing at CPR in a case where the victim still
  had vital signs when recovered.

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Critical-Incident Stress

• Other situations can be stressful
• exposure for long periods to the mtion of a
  rescue vessel in violent weather
• failing to assist in cases of damage or property
  loss
• being unfairly criticized for response to an
  incident.

112
Reacting According to Experience

• Individuals will react according their own
  experiences, age.
• Younger crew members can forget that loss of life
  may occur in SAR operations.
• A short debriefing is a good way of reducing or
  avoiding stress.

113
Reacting According to Experience

• An affirmative answer to any of the following
  questions after a critical incident may indicate
  that the job related stress has reached a danger
  point and a debriefing is needed
• 1. Do I have trouble putting the incident out of
  my mind?
• 2. Do I experience persistent, jittery feelings?
• 3. Am I forgetful, short tempered or fearful?

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Reacting According to Experience

• 4. Do I have nightmares, sleep disturbances, or a
  preoccupation with death?
• 5. Am I withdrawn from friends or family and less
  interested in sex or other activities that I used
  to find enjoyable?
• 6. Do I find myself drinking too much or
  depending on drugs to calm my nerves, or get me
  through the day?
• 7. Am I simply feeling out of sorts?

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Countering the Effects of Stress

• Many things can be done to counter the effects of
  stress
• 1. Rest
• 2. Rotate jobs on board
• 3. Keep everyone informed and updated frequently
• 4. Avoid excessive coffee and sugar, since both
  tend to increase stress reactions in the body

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Countering the Effects of Stress

• 5. Cover bodies
• Refusing to recognise a stressful situation may
  have a serious impact on you and your colleagues.
• The coxswain must create a climate of open
  discussion where feelings and reactions can be
  expressed.
• It is a weakness to deny the problem exists.

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This is an extract from the CCG SAR Seamanship
Reference Manual