PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

1
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
2

• -         Fitness Training
• -         Physiological Factors
• -         Psychological Factors
• -         Acquisition of Skill
• -         Technological Developments
• - Safety and Risk Assessment.

3
Fitness Training

• WARM UP AND COOL DOWN
• Warming up and cooling down are vital to every
  training session.
• WARM UP
• Gradually gets your body ready for exercise
• Increases the body temperature and blood flow to
  the muscles
• Stretches the muscles, mobilises the joints and
  increases range of movement
• Concentrates the mind on training
• COOL DOWN
• Gets your body back to normal state
• Helps replace the O2 debt in the muscles, getting
  rid of any lactic acid, which could cause muscle
  stiffness later on
• Gets rid of extra blood in your muscles to
  prevent pooling in your veins. This can make you
  feel dizzy and weak if exercise is stopped
  suddenly

4

• TRAINING PRINCIPLES
• There are 4 training principles
• SPECIFICITY
• Every person will need a different training
  programme because we are all different.
• The correct part of the body needs to be trained
  there is no point making a weightlifter run 5
  miles a day, as this will not improve his
  strength.
• Train to the correct level if someone is unfit,
  do not start them with a 5 mile run.
• PROGRESSION
• Gradually increase the amount of training thats
  done when the body has got used to the previous
  training.
• OVERLOAD
• To improve, you must make your body work harder
  than it usually would, so you need to push
  yourself beyond the threshold. You can do this by
  increasing frequency, intensity and duration of
  training.
• REVERSABILITY
• If you stop training, your fitness levels will
  drop. It takes much longer to gain fitness than
  it does to lose it.

5

• TRAINING PROGRAMMES
• A training programme must suit the person it is
  for.
• Many programmes are used using FITT
• Frequency how often you should exercise.
• Intensity how hard you exercise.
• Time how long you should exercise.
• Type what exercise you should use.

6

• WEIGHT TRAINING
• This improves muscle strength and tone.
• There are two types of weight training
• Isometric - muscles contract but there is no
  movement. Sit with your back to the wall and your
  knees bent at 45 and hold it.
• Advantages - develops static strength, its quick,
  cheap and easy to do
• Disadvantages no good if you have a heart
  problem, as blood flow is reduced to the muscles.
• Isotonic muscles contract and shorten to
  produce a movement. Pull ups
• Advantages easily adaptable to most sports,
  strengthens the muscle throughout the range of
  movement
• Disadvantages muscle can become sore due to the
  stress
• To overload, use heavier weights, or lift more
  times.

• CIRCUIT TRAINING
• This uses lots of different exercises. There can
  be between 8-15 stations, and at each one you do
  a specific activity for a set amount of time.
• Advantages less boring due to the variety of
  exercises, easily adaptable, can include weight
  and aerobic training
• Disadvantages can take time to set up, can get
  overcrowded if too busy
• To overload, do more repetitions at each station,
  complete the circuit quicker, rest less between
  stations, or repeat the circuit

7

• CONTINUOUS TRAINING
• Involves exercising at a constant rate, like
  running or cycling. It usually means working at
  60-90 VO2 max for an hour.
• Advantages needs only small amount or no
  equipment, good for aerobic fitness and using up
  body fat
• Disadvantages can be boring, does not improve
  sprinting, so not ideal for games.
• To overload, increase duration, distance, speed
  or frequency.

• FARTLEK TRAINING
• This can be made as easy or as hard as needed. It
  involves changing the intensity and type of
  exercise without stopping. Part of a fartlek run
  could be to sprint for 10 seconds, jog for 20
  seconds, repeated 4 times.
• Advantages good for sports that need different
  paces like football and hockey, easily changed to
  suit an individual.
• Disadvantages difficult to see how hard the
  person is training, too easy to skip the hard
  bits.
• To overload, increase times or speeds of each
  bit, or make the terrain more difficult (running
  uphill)

8

• INTERVAL TRAINING
• Fixed patterns of fast and slow exercise are used
  in interval training. Each repetition of the
  pattern is called a rep, and you must finish a
  set before you can rest.
• Advantages can mix aerobic and anaerobic
  exercise, its easy to see when athlete isnt
  trying.
• Disadvantages hard to keep going, can be a bit
  boring.
• To overload, increase reps or sets, or spend less
  time resting between sets.

9

• FITNESS TESTS
• If you have a high aerobic fitness level, then it
  means that compared to others your heart rate
  will be lower when resting and exercising, you
  can exercise for longer without feeling tired,
  and you can use up more O2 when you exercise.
• To measure you heart rate, place you first two
  fingers on one of you pulse points
• Carotid artery this is on you neck, to the one
  side
• Radial artery this is on your wrist, by the
  base of your thumb
• Count the beats over 15 seconds, then multiply
  that number by 4 to get beats per minute. Thats
  your heart rate.
• There are 3 main tests for aerobic fitness
• HARVARD STEP TEST
• 30 step-ups a minute for 5 minutes.
• Rest for 1 minute, then take your pulse to
  calculate your heart rate
• 12-MINUTE RUN
• Run around a track as many times as you can for
  12 minutes. The further you run, the fitter you
  are.
• MULTISTAGE FITNESS TEST
• Run shuttles between 2 lines 20m apart.
• Start on the first bleep. The time between the
  bleeps gets shorter, so you have to run faster.
• When you drop out, your level and number of
  completed shuttles are recorded.

10

• Endurance tests
• This can test the endurance of different muscles,
  seeing how many times you can do an exercise. Sit
  ups or press ups.
• Strength tests
• A dynamometer measures hand and forearm strength.
• Speed tests
• 30m sprint test measures your speed over a
  certain distance
• Flexibility test
• Sit and reach test measure flexibility in the
  hamstrings and back
• Power test
• Vertical jump and standing long jump measures
  your power in your legs

11
Physiological Factors

• AGE
• Strength
• You do not reach your maximum strength until you
  are around 20-thats when you are fully grown
• In your 20s and 30s it is still easy to build
  muscle. After this, protein levels and muscle
  mass falls, and strength declines, so its harder
  to build muscle.
• O2 capacity
• This falls as you get older, so less O2 can be
  taken to the muscles
• Injury and disease
• Older people are more prone to injury, and it
  takes them longer to recover from one
• Older people generally suffer from more diseases
• Reaction time
• These get slower as you get older
• Flexibility
• You are most flexible in your teens
• Experience
• This is a vital factor in sport
• As you get older, you become more experienced
• This is why there are age divisions in
  competitions. It would be unfair to expect a 50
  year old to compete against a 25 year old.

• GENDER
• Competitions usually split men and women, along
  with young and old.
• Men and women have different bodies
• Men have longer, heavier bone structure
• Women have a wider, fatter pelvis (better for
  child birth)
• Women generally have more body fat than men
• The menstrual cycle can affect performance
• Girls mature earlier than boys
• Girls reach physical maturity at 16 or 17,
  whereas boys mature at around 20
• Men are generally stronger
• Men have bigger muscles, due to higher
  testosterone levels
• Women are generally more flexible
• This is partly due to them having less muscle.

12

• SOMATOTYPES
• Somatotype means the shape of your body. This can
  affect your suitability for certain sports.
• There are 3 basic somatotypes
• ECTOMORPH
• Narrow shoulders, hips and chest
• Not much fat or muscle
• Long, thin arms and legs THIN - high jump, long
  distance running
• Thin face, high forehead
• ENDOMORPH
• Wide hips, but narrow shoulders
• Lot of fat on body, arms and legs DUMPY
  wrestling, shot putting
• Ankles and wrists slim
• MESOMORPH
• Wide shoulders, narrow hips
• Muscular body MUSCULAR swimming, gymnastics
• Strong arms and thighs
• Not much body fat

13

• DRUGS
• ALCOHOL
• Affects coordination, speech and judgment
• Slows reactions
• Makes muscles tired more quickly
• Eventually damages liver, kidneys, heart,
  muscles, brain and the digestive and immune system

• DRUGS
• SMOKING
• Causes nose, throat and chest irritations
• Makes you short of breath
• Increases the risk of developing heart disease,
  lung cancer, bronchitis.
• Every single cigarette damages your body

14

• PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS
• These are banned by the International Olympic
  Committee (IOC)
• STIMULANTS
• Speed up your reactions
• Increase aggression
• Make you feel less pain, which can make you train
  too hard
• Lead to high blood pressure, heart and liver
  failure and strokes
• They are addictive
• ANABOLIC AGENTS (STERIODS)
• Increase muscle size
• Allow you to train harder
• Cause high blood pressure, heart disease,
  infertility and cancer
• Women may grow facial and body hair, and their
  voices may deepen

• PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS
• NARCOTIC ANALGESICS
• Kill pain so injury and fatigue dont interfere
  with performance, and make you train too hard
• They are addictive, with unpleasant withdrawal
  symptoms
• Lead to constipation and low blood pressure
• PEPTIDE HORMONES
• Most have similar effects as steroids
• Cause strokes, and abnormal growth
• DIURETICS
• Make you urinate, causing weight loss
• Mask traces of other drugs in your system
• Cause cramp and dehydration

15

• The use of the following drugs are restricted by
  IOC
• BETA BLOCKERS
• Medicine that lowers heart rate, steadys shaking
  hands, and reduces anxiety
• Banned in sports where they may give an
  advantage, such as shooting, snooker
• ALCOHOL
• Sometimes used in snooker or shooting to calm
  nerves
• LOCAL ANAESTHETICS
• Reduce pain, but may be allowed for medical
  reasons
• MARIJUNA
• Similar effect to alcohol
• CORTICOSTERIODS
• Reduce pain and inflammation from injury
• Serious side effects, including diabetes,
  depression and weakening of the bones

16

• DOPE TESTING
• Can be done at any time.
• Urine samples are spilt into 2 bottles A and B
• A sample is tested. If drugs are found, B sample
  is tested to double check
• Refusing to give a sample is as serious as
  failing a test
• If an athlete is found guilty of taking banned
  drugs, they are banned from competing, sometimes
  forever.

• BLOOD DOPING
• This is used to simulate high altitude training,
  without going to high altitudes.
• Red blood cells are taken out of the athlete, so
  their body makes more to replace them
• Before a competition, the red blood cells are
  injected back into the athlete, so that more O2
  can be carried around their body.
• This is banned by IOC

17
Psychological Factors

• PERSONALITY
• People with different personalities prefer
  different sports. You can use the words
  introverted and extroverted to describe peoples
  personalities.
• INTROVERTED tend to choose more of these things
  for their sport
• Tend to get more nervous
• Individual performances
• Concentration
• Precision
• Less pain
• Calm
• Self-motivation
• Thinking
• Intricate skills
• Less arousal

• PERSONALITY
• EXTROVERT tend to choose more of these things
• Excitement
• Activity
• Team involvement
• Arousal
• Speed
• More pain
• Simple skills
• Less concentration
• Less thinking
• AGGRESSION can have good and bad effects. It must
  be controlled.
• There are 2 types
• INDIRECT hitting objects (tennis balls)
• DIRECT actual physical contact (rugby)

18

• MENTAL PREPARATION
• You need to be mentally fit to perform well at
  most sports.
• MOTIVATION is how keen you are to do something,
  the force that drives you on, your desire to
  succeed. It can be INTRINSIC or EXTRINSIC.
• INTRINSIC this comes from inside you. You play
  the sport because you want to do well at it and
  you enjoy it.
• EXTRINSIC this comes from outside. You may want
  to do well for a reward, such as money or
  publicity.
• AROUSAL is about being excited, keen, and
  mentally ready to perform a task. If your arousal
  level is too low, you will not perform at your
  best because you probably arent that excited. If
  your arousal level is too high, you become
  anxious and nervous, so you wont be able to give
  your best performance. If your arousal level is
  just right, you will be determined and ready, so
  should perform well.

19

• SKILLS
• A skill is something you learn to do, you cant
  be born with it.
• Skills can be either basic or complex
• BASIC
• Running, jumping, throwing
• Can be transferable across many activities
• Tend to be learnt at an early age
• COMPLEX
• More specific to certain sport, like taking a
  penalty in football
• Take more practice to master, and have more room
  for improvement
• Skills can also be open or closed
• OPEN - these are affected by external factors,
  such as where the ball is, where the goal is
• CLOSED these are hardly affected by the
  environment, as the same movements are usually
  made, like in darts the same movement is made.

20

• FEEDBACK
• This is the most important part of the learning
  process. Your brain looks at the result of the
  output, and registers the information to enable
  you to do better next time.
• There are 3 main ways of getting feedback
• Intrinsic you can feel how you kicked the ball
• Extrinsic you get verbal feedback off a coach,
  teacher or friend
• You can see the output. How successful was it?
  Did it go where I aimed it?

21
Safety

• There are many ways of staying safe whilst taking
  part in sport. Its important to make sure you are
  using the correct technique, wearing the correct
  types of clothing, have warmed up and cooled
  down, and are playing by the rules.
• Many sport have protective clothing that should
  be worn when playing. In football, shin pads are
  expected to be worn, mouth guards in hockey and
  rugby.
• There are also many rules in the sports that are
  there purely for health and safety reasons. No
  two-footed tackling in football, no tackling
  above the neck in rugby, no contact in netball.

22

• SPORTING INJURIES
• There are 2 different types of injury you can get
  from sport
• CHRONIC
• Caused by continuous stress on a certain body
  part over a long period of time by overuse
• Tennis players can develop tennis elbow an
  inflammation of the tendons in the elbow due to
  overuse of certain arm muscles
• Long distance runners can develop shin splints
  a bone injury in the front of the leg
• Risks of this type of injury can be training too
  hard, not enough rest, poor footwear or bad
  technique
• ACUTE
• Caused by sudden stress on a body part, such as a
  fracture, pulled muscle or concussion
• Can occur by colliding with an opponent, being
  hit by something or falling from a height or with
  speed.

• INJURY PREVENTION
• Take off any jewellery
• Use the right equipment
• Be aware of possible dangers
• Use correct technique
• Warm up before activity
• Know and follow the rules
• Wear suitable footwear
• Use protective equipment if necessary
• Use officials to ensure fair play
• Cool down after activity
• Give yourself time to recover before playing
  again.

23

• SOFT TISSUE INJURIES
• Open injuries occur when the skin is broken,
  usually allowing blood to escape
• Closed injuries happen under the skin
• Bruising damage to blood vessels
• Strained (pulled) muscles tears in tissues,
  caused by overstretching
• Sprains joint injuries, where the ligament has
  been stretched or torn
• Dislocation joint injuries, where the bone is
  pulled out of its usual position
• Cartilage can be torn by violent impact such as
  twisting

• HARD TISSUE INJURIES
• Fractures are either cracks in the bone or an
  actual break. These can be open or closed. In an
  open fracture, the bone breaks the skin in a
  closed fracture, it happens under the skin.
• Fractures are usually accompanied by bruising and
  swelling around the injured area, because the
  blood vessels are damaged there
• They are also painful because of the damaged
  nerves inside the bone.
• A stress fracture is a crack along the length of
  the bone, which is caused by continuous stress
  over a long period of time.

24

• TYPES AND TREATMENTS
• HYPERTHERMIA
• Symptoms temperature increases, weak pulse,
  results from over exercising and dehydration
• Treatment lie patient in cool place, give them
  liquids
• HYPOTHERMIA
• Symptoms temperature falls too low, muscles go
  rigid, irregular heart beat
• Treatment raise temperature, wrap in warm, dry
  clothing, hot drinks
• CRAMP
• Symptoms involuntary contraction of muscles,
  caused by lack of salt in the blood, or lack of
  blood flowing to the muscle
• Treatment stretch the muscle, massaging it
  gently

• TYPES AND TREATMENTS
• WINDING
• Symptoms difficulty in breathing, pain in the
  abdomen
• Treatment lean forward, rub affected area
• SHOCK
• Symptoms pale, clammy skin, fast, weak pulse,
  feel dizzy, thirsty, or sick
• Treatment call ambulance
• CONCUSSION
• Symptoms unconsciousness, memory loss, sick
• Treatment call ambulance
• STITCH
• Symptoms sharp pain in abdomen
• Treatment stop exercising, take deep breaths,
  breath out slowly

25

• RICE
• This is a good treatment for all soft tissue
  injuries. It reduces pain, swelling and bruising.
• R rest. Stop straight away. If you carry on it
  will make the injury worse
• I ice. Apply ice to the injury. This makes the
  blood vessels contract to reduce the bleeding and
  swelling
• C compression. Wrapping the injury will also
  help to reduce the swelling, but dont make it so
  tight that the blood is prevented from
  circulating
• E elevation. Support the injury at a raised
  level (above the heart), so the flow of blood is
  reduced because it has to flow against gravity