Ethical Concepts and Theories

1
Ethical Concepts and Theories
2
What is morality?

• Morality is a system consisting of
• Rules for guiding human conduct and
• Principles (standards) for evaluating the rules
• Two kinds of rules
• Directives individual behavior
• Social policies
• A moral system should
• Prevent harm
• Promote human flourishing

3
Figure 2-1 Basic Components of a Moral System
Rules of Conduct (Action-guiding rules, in the
form of either directives or social policies)
Principles of Evaluation (Evaluative standards
used to justify rules of conduct)
Examples include principles such as of social
utility and justice as fairness
two types
Rules for guiding the actions of individuals
(micro-level ethical rules)
Rules for establishing social policies (macro-lev
el ethical rules)
Examples include directives such as"Do not
steal" and "Do not harm others."
Examples include social policies such
as "Software should be protected and "Privacy
should be respected."
4
Table 2-1  Four Features of Gerts Moral System
Public The rules are known to all of the
members.
Informal The rules are informal, not like formal
laws in a legal system.
Rational The system is based on principles of
logical reason accessible to all its members.
Impartial The system is not partial to any one
group or individual.
5
Source of rules

• Derived from values
• Intrinsic value valued for own sake
• Life
• Happiness
• Love
• Freedom
• Instrumental value serves a further good
• Wealth
• Core values necessary for survival or well-being
• Values can be moral or non-moral

6
Figure 2-2 Components of a Moral System
Religion Philosophy Law
Grounds for justifying moral principles
Principles of Evaluation  Rules of Conduct
Moral principles and rules
Source of moral rules
Core Values
7
Figure 2-3 Components of a Moral System An
Expanded View
Grounds for Justifying the Moral Principles
Religion (Obedience to Divine Command)

Philosophical Ethics (Ethical Theory and Logical
Argumentation)
Law (Obedience to (a legal system)
Moral Principles Principles such as social
utility, duty, obligation, etc. are used as
standards to evaluate and justify rules of
conduct.
Moral Principles
Rules of Conduct Moral rules are derived from
basic moral values (macro-level rules or
policies such as "protect privacy micro-level
rules or directives such as "do not cheat").
Source of the Moral rules
Basic Moral Values Moral values are derived from
core non-moral values by using the notion of
impartiality. (Examples include autonomy and
respect for persons.
Core Non-Moral Values Non-moral values
originate from desires and typically involve
rational self interests. (Examples include
survival, security, pleasure, etc.)
8
Grounds for moral principles

• Religion wrong means not in accordance with
  divine will
• Law wrong means illegal
• Philosophy wrong means wrong

9
Discussion stoppers

• People disagree about morality
• Who am I to judge?
• Morality is a personal matter
• Morality is determined by culture

10
Table 2-2  Summary of Logical Flaws in the
Discussion Stoppers

Stopper 2 Who am I to judge others?
__________________ 1. Fails to distinguish
between the act of judging and being a judgmental
person. 2. Fails to distinguish between judging
as condemning and judging as evaluating. 3. Fails
to recognize that sometimes we are required to
make judgments

• Stopper 3
• Ethics is simply a private matter.
• _________________
• Fails to recognize that morality is essentially a
  public system.
• 2. Fails to note that personally-based morality
  can cause major harm to others.
• 3. Confuses moral choices with individual or
  personal preferences.

Stopper 1 People disagree on solutions to moral
issues.


__________________ 1. Fails to
recognize that experts in many areas disagree on
key issues in their fields. 2. Fails to recognize
that there are many moral issues on which people
agree. 3. Fails to distinguish between
disagreements about principles and disagreements
about facts.
Stopper 4 Morality is simply a matter for
individual cultures to decide. ___________________
1. Fails to distinguish between descriptive and
normative claims about morality. 2. Assumes that
people can never reach common agreement on some
moral principles. 3. Assumes that a system is
moral because a majority in a culture decides it
is moral.



11
Ethical theories should be

• Coherent elements should fit to form a whole
• Consistent no contradictions
• Comprehensive widely applicable
• Systematic based on general principles

12
Four kinds of ethical theories

• Consequence-based
• Utilitarianism
• Duty-based
• Immanuel Kant
• Contract-based
• Thomas Hobbes
• Character-based
• Aristotle

13
Utilitarianism

• Espoused by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
• Maximization of good
• Principle of social utility
• Ability to measure social utility
• Act utilitarianism
• Act should bring about greatest good for greatest
  number
• As long as good outweighs bad, no problem
• Rule utilitarianism
• Consequences of rules, not acts
• Rule governing act should bring about greatest
  good for greatest number

14
Duty-based (deontological) theories

• Immanuel Kant
• Performance of duty doesnt necessarily lead to
  happiness
• Humans are rational creatures
• Humans are ends-in-themselves
• Humans have equal moral worth

15
Rule deontology

• Categorical imperative version 1 Treat
  individuals as ends, not means
• Categorical imperative version 2 Act as though
  you would want your principle to be a universal
  law
• Universality Applies to all
• Impartiality No individual or group is
  privileged or favored
• Problem conflicting duties

16
Act deontology

• David Ross Prima facie (self-evident) duties
• If no conflicts, prima facie duty is actual duty
• Rational intuitionism to resolve conflicts
• Controversial, not widely accepted

17
Contract-based ethical theories

• Thomas Hobbes Leviathan
• State of nature no rules
• Surrender of freedoms to a sovereign to receive
  benefits
• It is in our self-interest to develop rules
• Problem No contract? No moral obligation.
• Doing good component

18
Rights-based Contract Theories

• All humans have a set of natural rights
• Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
  inalienable, self-evident
• Rights exist with or without law
• Negative right freedom from interference
• Positive right free public education, health
  care?

19
Character-based Ethical Theories

• Plato and Aristotle
• To be moral, one must acquire the right virtues
• Does not rely on rules
• Instead of what should I do?, ask what should
  I be?
• A moral person does not deliberate over choices
  but acts in character

20
Character formation

• Too late?
• Only ethical people should teach ethics
• Frances Grodzinsky virtue ethics appeals to
  aspiring computer scientists
• Problems conflicts among virtues, no examination
  of consequences
• Critics poor fit for heterogeneous society
• Lack of consensus on virtues

21
Table 2-3  Four Types of Ethical Theory

22
Moors Just-Consequentialist Theory

• Combines elements of consequence-based,
  duty-based, and virtue ethics
• Prevent harm support justice, rights, and duties
• Conflict resolution deliberation stage and
  selection stage

23
Moors Ethical Framework of Just
Consequentialism A Two-Step Strategy
1. Deliberate over various policies from an
impartial point of view to determine whether they
meet the criteria for being ethical policies. A
policy is ethical if it
a. does not cause any unnecessary harms to
individual groups
b. supports individual rights,
the fulfilling of duties, etc.
2. Select the best policy from the set
of just policies arrived at the deliberation
stage by ranking

ethical
policies in terms of benefits and justifiable
(harms). In doing this, be sure to
a. weigh carefully between the
good consequences and the bad consequences in the
ethical policies and
b. distinguish between
disagreements about facts and disagreements about
principles and values, when deciding which
particular ethical policy should be adopted.
(Knowledge about the facts surrounding a
particular case should inform the
decision-making process.)