II

1
II4 DC Circuits II

• Applications

2
Main Topics

• Real Power Sources. (EMF, Ri, Opt)
• Building DC Voltmeters and Ammeters.(Ga
• Using DC Voltmeters and Ammeters.(Rv
• Wheatstone Bridge.(zero methods)
• Charging Accumulators.
• The Thermocouple.

3
Real Power Sources I

• Power sources have some forces on non-electric
  character which compensate for discharging when
  current is delivered.
• Real sources are not able to compensate totally.
  The terminal voltage is a decreasing function of
  current.
• Most power source behave linearly. It means we
  can describe their properties by two parameters,
  according to a model which describes them.

4
Real Power Sources II

• Most common model is to substitute a real source
  by serial combination of an ideal power source of
  some voltage ? or EMF (electro-motoric force) and
  an ideal, so called internal resistor. Then the
  terminal voltage can be expressed
• V(I) ? - RiI
• If we compare this formula with behavior of a
  real source, we see that ? is the terminal
  voltage for zero current and Ri is the slope of
  the function.

5
Real Power Sources III

• ? can be obtained only by extrapolation to zero
  current. From the equation we see that the
  internal resistance Ri can be considered as a
  measure, how close is the particular power source
  to an ideal one. The smaller value of Ri the
  closer is the plot of the function to a constant
  function, which would be the behavior of an ideal
  power source the terminal doesnt depend on
  current.

6
Real Power Sources IV

• The model using ? and Ri must be used even when
  charging but the potential drop on the internal
  resistor the has the oposite polarity
• Example When charging a battery by a charger at
  Vc 13.2 V the Ic 10 A was reached. When
  discharging the same battery the terminal
  voltage Vd 9.6 A and current Id 20 A. Find
  the ? and Ri.

7
Real Power Sources V

• Charging
• ? Ic Ri Vc
• Discharging
• ? - Id Ri Vd
• Here
• ? 10 Ri 13.2
• ? - 20 Ri 9.6
• ? 12 V and Ri. 0.12 ?

8
DC Voltmeters and Ammeters I

• Measurements of voltages and currents are very
  important not only in physics and electronics but
  in whole science and technology since most of
  scientific and technological quantities (such as
  temperature, pressure ) are usually converted to
  electrical values.

9
DC Voltmeters and Ammeters II

• In the following part we shall first deal with
  the principles of building simple measuring
  devices. Then we shall illustrate some typical
  problems which stem from non-ideality of these
  instruments which influences the accuracy of the
  measured values.

10
Building V-meters and A-meters I

• The heart of voltmeters or ammeters is so called
  galvanometer. It is a very sensitive voltmeter or
  ammeter. It is usually characterized by
  full-scale current or full scale-voltage and
  internal resistance.
• Let us have a galvanometer of the full-scale
  current of If 50 ?A and internal resistance Rg
  30 ?. Ohms law ? Vf If Rg 1.5 mV

11
Building V-meters and A-meters II

• If we want to measure larger currents, we have to
  use a shunt resistor which would bypasses the
  galvanometer and takes around the superfluous
  current.
• For instance let I0 10 mA. Since it is a
  parallel connection, at Vf 1.5 mV, there must
  be I 9.950 mA passing through it, so R 0.1508
  ?. Shunt resistors have small resistance, are
  precise and robust.

12
Building V-meters and A-meters III

• If we what to measure larger voltages we have to
  use a resistor in series with the galvanometer.
  On which there would be the rest of the voltage.
• Lets for instance measure V0 10 V. Then at If
  50 ?A there must be V 9.9985 V on the resistor.
  So Rv 199970 ?. These serial resistors must be
  large and precise.

13
Using V-meters and A-meters I

• Due to their non-ideal internal resistance
  voltmeters and ammeters can influence their or
  other instruments reading by a systematic error!
• What is ideal?
• Voltmeters are connected in parallel. They should
  have infinite resistance not to bypass the
  circuit.
• Ammeter are connected in serial. They should have
  zero resistance so there is no voltage on them.

14
Using V-meters and A-meters II

• Let us measure a resistance by a direct
  measurement. We can use two circuits.
• In the first one the voltage is measured
  accurately but the internal resistance of
  voltmeter (if infinity) makes the reading of
  current larger. The measured resistance is
  underestimated.
• Can be accepted for very small resistances.

15
Using V-meters and A-meters III

• In the second scheme the current is measured
  accurately but the internal resistance of the
  ammeter (if not zero) makes the reading of
  voltage larger. The measured resistance is
  overestimated.
• Can be accepted for very large resistances.
• The internal resistances of the meters can be
  obtained by calibration.

16
Using V-meters and A-meters IV

• Normal measurements use some physical methods to
  get information about unknown properties of
  samples.
• Calibration is a special measurement done on
  known (standard) sample to obtain information on
  the method used.

17
Wheatstone Bridge I

• One of the most accurate methods to measure
  resistance is using the Wheatstone Bridge.
• It is a square circuit of resistors. One of them
  is unknown. The three other must be known and one
  of the three must be variable. There is a
  galvanometer in one diagonal and a power source
  in the other.

18
Wheatstone Bridge II

• During the measurement be change the value of the
  variable resistor till we balance the bridge,
  which means there is no current in the diagonal
  with the galvanometer. It is only possible if the
  potentials in the points a and b are the same
• I1R1 I3R3 and I1R2 I3R4 divide them ?
• R2/R1 R4/R3 e.g. ? R4 R2R3/R1

19
The Thermocouple I

• The thermocouple is an example of a transducer, a
  device which transfers some physical quality
  (here temperature) to an electrical one.
• Unlike other temperature sensors e.g. the
  platinum thermometer or thermistor which use the
  thermal conductivity change of metals or
  semiconductors, the thermocouple is a
  power-source.

20
The Thermocouple II

• It is based on thermoelectric or Seebeck (Thomas
  1821) effect. In the joint of two different
  metals the properties must be locally balanced at
  the cost that free charge carriers from one metal
  flow across the junction into the other and
  thereby produce make a contact voltage which
  depends on temperature. By measuring this voltage
  we can measure temperature.

21
The Thermocouple III

• Often thermocouples are used in pairs so that
  other unwanted thermocouples which are present in
  the circuit after connecting the voltmeter, are
  compensated. But it is at the cost of
  sensitivity.
• Modern thermometers can simulate the cold
  junction!
• It works the other way also Petlier effect
  (Jean 1834). We can charge the junction!

22
Homework

• 26 3, 4, 10, 11, 40
• Study guides
• Please see me!
• Cataldo Brian W
• Spina Catherine Sheridan
• Yap Holston Adi

23
Things to read

• Repeat the chapters 21 - 26 !

24
The vector or cross product I

• Let ca.b
• Definition (components)

The magnitude c
Is the surface of a parallelepiped made by a,b.
25
The vector or cross product II
The vector c is perpendicular to the plane made
by the vectors a and b and they have to form a
right-turning system.
?ijk 1 (even permutation), -1 (odd), 0 (eq.)