Important Assignment!!!!

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Important Assignment!!!!
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Activity

• Recall vs. Recognition

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Module 12

• Remembering Forgetting

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Recall vs. Recognition

• Recall
• Retrieving previously learned information without
  the aid of or with very few external cues
• Recognition
• Identifying previously learned information with
  the help of more external cues

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Organization of Memories

• Network Theory
• We store related ideas in separate categories,
  called nodes
• As we make associations between information, we
  create links among thousands of nodes
• Nodes make up a huge interconnected network of
  files

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Network Hierarchy

• Nodes
• Memory files that contain related information
  organized around a specific topic
• Network hierarchy
• Arrangement of nodes in a certain order
• At the bottom, are nodes with very concrete
  information
• These nodes are linked to more specific
  information, which is connected to more general
  information

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Forgetting

• Refers to the inability to retrieve, recall, or
  recognize information that was stored or is still
  stored in long-term memory.

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Forgetting Curve

• Measures the amount of previously learned
  information that subjects can recall across time

• Ebbinghaus
• One of the 1st psychologists to study memory
  forgetting
• He tested his own memory of nonsense syllables

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4 Reasons for Forgetting

• Repression
• Mental process that automatically hides
  emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing
  information in the unconscious
• Poor Retrieval Cues
• Retrieval cues are mental reminders that we
  create by forming vivid mental images or creating
  associations between new information
  information we already know
• Amnesia
• Loss of memory due to a blow or damage to the
  brain, after drug use, or after severe
  psychological stress
• Interference
• Recall of a memory is blocked by other related
  memories

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Interference

• Theory that we may forget information not because
  it is no longer in storage or memory but rather
  because old or newer related information produces
  confusion and thus blocks retrieval from memory

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2 Types of Interference

• Proactive
• Old information (learned earlier) blocks or
  disrupts the remembering of new information
  (learned later)
• Retroactive
• New information (learned later) blocks or
  disrupts the remembering of old information
  (learned earlier)

blocks or disrupts
the retrieval of related old info
learned EARLIER (psychology)
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Retrieval Cues

• Mental reminders that you create by forming vivid
  mental images of information or associating new
  information with information that you already
  know
• State Dependent Learning
• It is easier to recall information when you are
  in the same physiological or emotional state or
  setting as when you originally encoded the
  information

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Forgetting- Cue Dependence Theory

• Explains forgetting as due to the failure to have
  or use adequate retrieval cues
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Refers to having a
  strong feeling that a particular word can be
  recalled, but despite making a great effort, we
  are temporarily unable to recall this particular
  information. Later, in a different situation, we
  may recall the information.
• The inability to recall info that one knows has
  been stored in long-term memory
• Universal, increases with age, and occurs about
  once a week

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Forgetting- Cue Dependence Theory

• Encoding Specificity Recall will be best when
  cues that were associated with the encoding of a
  memory are also present during attempts at
  retrieving it
• Context Dependent Memory Recall to be best
  when the environmental context present during the
  encoding of a memory is also present during
  attempts at retrieving it
• State Dependent Memory Recall to be best when
  ones emotional or physiological state is the
  same during the recall during attempts at
  retrieving it
• Mood Dependent Memory Recall to be best when
  ones mood is the same during the recall of a
  memory as it was during the encoding of that
  memory
• Mood Congruent Memory Tendency to recall
  memories that are consistent with ones current
  mood
• Helps explain the self-perpetuating nature of
  depression

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Where should you take your psychology tests?
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Discussion

• If you wanted to change your study habits, how
  would you use information about why we forget?

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Biological Bases of Memory

• Cortex- short-term memories long-term memories
  (stores)
• Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface
  of the forebrain
• Amygdala- emotional memories (adds emotional
  associations)
• Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface
  of the cortex in the tip of the temporal lobe
• Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of
  emotions to our memories
• Hippocampus- transferring memories from STM to
  LTM (transfers)
• Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath
  the cortex in the temporal lobe
• Transfers declarative information (words, facts
  events) from STM into LTM

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Location of Memories in the Brain
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STM Neural Assemblies

• Groups of interconnected neurons whose activation
  allows information or stimuli to be recognized
  and held briefly and temporarily in short-term
  memory
• One mechanism for holding information in
  short-term memory

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LTM Long-Term Potential (LTP)

• Researchers believe that learning changes the
  structure and function of the neuron itself
• LTP refers to the increased sensitivity of a
  neuron to stimulation after it has been
  repeatedly stimulated (by changing the neurons
  structure)

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Mnemonic Devices

• Ways to improve encoding and create better
  retrieval cues by forming vivid associations or
  images
• Techniques for organizing information to be
  memorized to make it easier to remember
• SQR4 Method
• Elaborative Rehearsal (vs. maintenance rehearsal
  rote memorization)
• Overlearning
• Distributed Practice (vs. Massed Practice)
• Method of Loci
• Acronyms
• Pegword Method
• Link Method
• Narrative Method

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SQR4 Method

• Student using the following processes to read and
  study
• Surveys Glance through the headings throughout
  a section to get an idea about which you will be
  reading
• Questions As you survey, develop questions that
  you should be able to answer when finished
• Read Carefully read the material
• Recite Be sure you can answer all the questions
  and explain what you have read
• Review Quiz yourself on the section and reread
  the necessary portions that you didnt know well
• wRite Write what you have learned in your own
  words.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

• Processing information at a relatively deep level
  
• Far superior to maintenance rehearsal rote
  memorization (process at a relatively shallow
  level)

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Overlearning

• Study material beyond the point of initial
  mastery
• Helps performance partially due to increased
  confidence

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Distributed Practice

• Spreading out memorization of information or
  learning over several sessions
• Far superior to massed practice (Cramming the
  memorization of information or learning into one
  session)

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Method of Loci

• Create visual associations between already
  memorized places new items to be memorized
• Mnemonic device that involves associating the
  items you need to remember with the landmarks of
  a familiar place
• You recall the items as you take a mental walk
  through the familiar place

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Acronym

• Forming a term from the first letters of a series
  of words that need to be remembered

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Pegword Method

• Create associations between number-word rhymes
  and items to be memorized
• One is a bun two is a shoe three is a tree
  four is a door five is a hive
• First, make-up a simple rhyme like 1 bun, 2
  shoe, 3 bee, etc.
• Associate the items you need to remember with the
  peg words (like bun) in your rhyme
• The stranger the association, the easier it will
  be for you to remember the item

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Link Method

• Connect images of the items you need to remember
  in sequence

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Narrative Method

• Connect unrelated items that you must remember
  together in a story

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Discussion

• Can you describe a mnemonic method to remember
  the four reasons for forgetting?

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Activities

• Creating Memories 27 8
• False Memories

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Can False Memories Be Implanted?

• Researchers interviewed parents about events that
  occurred in their childrens lives during the
  past 12 months
• Each 3- to 6-year-old was read a list of these
  events including some fictitious events
• Children were asked to think hard identify
  the events that actually happened

Bar graph data from Repeatedly Thinking About a
Non-Event Source Misattributions Among
Pre-Schoolers, by S. J. Ceci, M. L. C. Huffman,
E. Smith E. Loftus, 1994, Consciousness and
Cognition, 3, 388-407.
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How Accurate is an Eyewitness?

• Own-Race Bias
• Researchers found that an eyewitness of one race
  is less accurate when identifying an accused
  person of another race
• Confidence
• 6 reviews of studies concluded that there is a
  weak relationship between correct identification
  level of witness confidence

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Can Questions Change the Answers?

• Did the car pass the barn?
• After watching a film segment, subjects were
  asked, How fast was the red sports car going
  when it passed the barn?
• Although there was no barn in the film, 17 of
  subjects reported seeing a barn
• Was there a stop sign?
• Subjects were shown slides of a traffic accident
  involving a stop sign asked questions about
  what they saw
• Some subjects were asked misleading questions
  about a yield sign instead of a stop sign
• Subjects who had been given misleading questions
  were more likely to report seeing a yield sign
  than subjects who were not misled

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Source Misattribution

• Memory error that results when a person has
  difficulty deciding which of 2 sources a memory
  came from
• Factors contributing to source misattribution
• false suggestions
• misleading questions
• misinformation

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Cognitive Interview

• Used by investigators to interview eyewitnesses
• Technique for questioning people by having them
  imagine reconstruct the details of an event
  report everything they remember

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Discussion

• If you were on a jury, what concerns would you
  have when listening to eyewitness testimony?

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Activity

• Earliest Memory

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Discussion

• What are some possible explanations for why
  adults dont have memories for experiences that
  occurred early in childhood?

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Memory Activities

• Exploratorium

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The Mind

• 10 Life Without Memory The Case of Clive
  Wearing
• 11 Clive Wearing, Part 2 Living Without Memory
• Discussion 23 3

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Activity

• Applying Study Skills

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Distribute rather than mass study time.
• Study about 20-30 minutes at a time (about one
  section of a module) rather than 3 hours the
  night before an exam.
• Reinforce rather than punish good student
  behavior.
• Do something fun (watch TV, talk on the phone,
  shoot hoops) AFTER you have done your studying.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Create a study area.
• Okay, so you cant afford one room just for
  studying. Have a STUDY LAMP that you bring to
  your kitchen or bedroom when you study. When
  your lamp is on, you dont eat, watch TV, talk on
  the phone, etc. Try the library. Choose an area
  that is free of distractions.
• Become active (reciting, walking, or taking
  notes) rather than remaining passive while
  studying.
• We all have had the experience of reading two
  pages mindlessly and not remembering a thing
  weve read. Put your brain in gear. Ask
  yourself questions about the material, ask
  questions during class, make flashcards, arrange
  study groups.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Discover meaning rather than merely memorizing.
• Can you do the concept reviews and summary tests
  without looking at the answers?
• Do you understand what the material means well
  enough to answer the study questions?
• Try to put the lecture or textual material into
  your own words.
• Take time to integrate new material with concepts
  that you already understand.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Use mnemonics (techniques to improve recall).
• Employ acronyms (FOIL, ROY G BIV)
• Use peg words
• Utilize the method of loci
• Eliminate interference.
• Study one subject at a time, space study
  periods, study before or after sleeping.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Understand the concept rather than recognizing
  having seen it.
• The most common reason that students FORGET is
  that they never LEARNED the material in the first
  place- remember, whats on a penny?.
• SQ4R- Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and
  wRite.
• Use this methodour text fits great with it.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Overlearn.
• Studies show that the more one reviews material
  (even material one has mastered), the better it
  is remembered and the easier it is to retrieve.
  This is not to be confused with OVERSTUDYING
  which is another word for cramming at the last
  minute.
• Encode in as many different ways as possible.
• - Visual highlight text, visually arrange
  notes, use imagery
• - Auditory tape record lecture or yourself
  going over important concepts, teach someone
  else, use tutoring services
• - Tactile rewrite notes or combine lecture
  notes with textbook information, use hands-on
  where possible (get a brain model)

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Take good notes.
• Rephrase what the teacher has said in your own
  words (so that you understand it and can
  associate it personally).
• Write more than what is put on the board or
  screen (add examples and other students
  questions).
• Rewrite your notes after class.
• Compare your notes with other students (for
  missing information or other way of
  understanding).
• Divide your note page vertically so that the left
  side can be used later for important terms or
  added notes.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Strategic textbook reading
• Read before as well as after the lecture on the
  material. The former helps you understand the
  lecture better, the latter reinforces it.
• Write comments in the margins of the text.
• Look up difficult words (keep a dictionary
  handy).
• Remember that reading does not equal studying.
  Reading textbooks are not like reading a novel.
  Being familiar with the material does not mean
  you will remember the specifics.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Managing Time
• Get a date book and with a syllabus in hand set
  up a realistic study schedule.
• Divide up larger tasks (such as term papers) into
  smaller sub-tasks.
• When registering for classes make sure that your
  goals and times are manageable (balance family,
  job, fun).
• Go to class and if you should miss get notes and
  assignments from a good student.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Test Taking Skills
• Multiple-choice is choosing the BEST choice, so
  make sure you read all answers.
• If part of a true-false is false then the entire
  question is false.
• On essays, jot down a quick outline before you
  start writing. Do the essays before the multiple
  choice.
• Skip questions you do not know and come back to
  them (later questions may help you remember).
• Relax.

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Applied Memory Study Skills

• Choose friends wisely.
• Choose friends that are interested in learning
  and a career.
• Their motivation will help you get involved and
  keep you on track (and vice-versa).

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Movie Overboard

• What is the cause of Goldies amnesia and what
  are some other ways a person may develop amnesia?
• What triggers Goldie to remember everything about
  her life at once? What could possibly explain
  the instantaneous recovery of her memory?
• Do you believe someones personality could
  change, like Goldies character, if during a
  period of amnesia, you were made to believe that
  your were someone you really werent? Why or why
  not?

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Movie While You Were Sleeping

• How did Bullocks character come to be engaged to
  her first fiance?
• How easily do you think people are influenced to
  believe false memories? Have you ever been
  influenced to have false memories?
• How accurate is oral information? Cite examples
  from movie for support.

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The Brain

• 17 Learning as Synaptic Change
• 18 Living With Amnesia The Hippocampus
  Memory
• 20 A Super-Memorist Advises on Study Strategies

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PsychSim 4.0

• Forgetting

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PsychQuest

• Can We Rely on Memory?