Introduction to Linguistics

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Introduction to Linguistics

• Languages of the World

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How many languages?

• How many languages are spoken in the world today?
• The Ethnologue lists
• 6,809 living languages in the year 2000
• Ethnologue language data The language data you
  will find on this site came from the Ethnologue
  database. Once every four years we take a
  "snapshot" of the contents of the database and
  publish it along with language maps for many of
  the countries of the world.

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Geography
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Density of languages

• The number of languages listed for Papua New
  Guinea is 832.
• 823 are living languages
• 9 are extinct

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Papua New Guinea

• ABAGA, ABASAKUR, ABAU, ABU, ADZERA, AEKYOM,
  AGARABI, AGI, AGOB, AIKLEP, AIKU, AIMELE, AINBAI,
  AIOME, AION, AK, AKOLET, AKOYE, AKRUKAY,
  ALAMBLAK, ALATIL, ALEKANO, AMA, AMAIMON, AMAL,
  AMANAB, AMARA, AMBULAS, AMELE, AMPEELI-WOJOKESO,
  AMTO, ANAM, ANAMGURA, ANDARUM, ANDRA-HUS, ANEM,
  ANEMEWAKE, ANGAATIHA, ANGAL, ANGALENEN,
  ANGALHENENG, ANGOR, ANGORAM, ANJAM, ANKAVE, ANOR,
  ANUKI, APMA, APALI, APALIK, APOS, ARAFUNDI,
  ARAMMBA, ARAPESH,BUMBITA, ARAWUM, ARE, ARI,
  ARIBWAUNG, ARIFAMA-MINIAFIA, AROP-LOKEP,
  AROP-SISSANO, ARUAMU, ARUEK, ARUOP, ASARO'O,
  ASAS, ASAT, ATEMBLE, ATURU, AU, AUNALEI, AUWE,
  AVAU, AWA, AWADBING, AWAR, AWARA, AWIYAANA,
  AWTUW, AWUN, BAGUPI, BAHINEMO, BAIBAI, BAIMAK,
  BAINAPI, BALUAN-PAM, BAMU, BANARO, BANONI, BARAI,
  BARAMU, BARGAM, BARIAI, BARIJI, BARIM, BAROK,
  BARUGA, BARUYA, BAU, BAUWAKI, BEAMI, BEBELI,
  BELI, BEMAL, BENABENA, BEPOUR, BIANGAI, BIEM,
  BIKARU, BIKSI, BILAKURA, BILBIL, BILUR, BIMIN,
  BINAHARI, BINANDERE, BINE, BINUMARIEN, BIPI,
  BISIS, BISORIO, BITARA, BIWAT, BIYOM, BLAFE, BO,
  BOAZI, BOGAYA, BOHUAI, BOIKIN, BOLA, BONGOS,
  BONGU, BONKIMAN, BOREI, BOSILEWA, BOSNGUN,
  BRAGAT, BREM, BRERI, BUANG,MANGGA, BUANG,MAPOS,
  BUDIBUD, BUGAWAC, BUHUTU, BUIN, BUKIYIP, BULGEBI,
  BULU, BUN, BUNA, BUNAMA, BUNGAIN, BURUI,
  BURUM-MINDIK, BUSA, BWAIDOKA, BWANABWANA,
  CHAMBRI, CHANGRIWA, CHENAPIAN, CHUAVE, DADIBI,
  DAGA, DAMBI, DANARU, DANO, DAONDA, DAWAWA, DEDUA,
  DEGENAN, DENGALU, DIA, DIMIR, DIODIO, DOBU, DOGA,
  DOM, DOMU, DOMUNG, DOROMU, DOSO, DOURA, DUAU,
  DUDUELA, DUMPU, DUMUN, DUNA, DUWET, EDOLO,
  EITIEP, EIVO, ELEPI, ELKEI, ELU, ENGA, ENGLISH,
  ERAVE, ERE, EWAGE-NOTU, FAITA, FAIWOL, FAS, FASU,
  FEMBE, FINUNGWA, FIWAGA, FOI, FOLOPA, FORAK,
  FORE, FUYUG, GABUTAMON, GADSUP, GAIKUNDI, GAINA,
  GAL, GALEYA, GANGLAU, GANTS, GAPAPAIWA, GARUS,
  GASMATA, GEDAGED, GENDE, GETMATA, GHAYAVI, GIDRA,
  GIMI, GIMI, GINUMAN, GIRA, GIRAWA, GITUA, GIZRA,
  GNAU, GOBASI, GOGODALA, GOLIN, GORAKOR, GOROVU,
  GUHU-SAMANE, GUIARAK, GUMALU, GUMAWANA, GUNTAI,
  GURAMALUM, GURIASO, GUSAN, GWAHATIKE, GWEDA,
  HAHON, HAIGWAI, HAKÖ, HALIA, HAMTAI, HANGAHUNDI,
  HARUAI, HEWA, HINIHON, HOTE, HULA, HULI, HUMENE,
  IAMALELE, IATMUL, IDI, IDUNA, IGANA, IGOM,
  IKOBI-MENA, IMBONGU, IMONDA, INAPANG, INOKE-YATE,
  IPIKO, IPILI, ISABI, ISEBE, ITERI, ITUTANG, IWAL,
  IWAM, IWAM,SEPIK, JILIM, JIMAJIMA, KABADI, KAIAN,
  KAIEP, KAIRAK, KAIRIRU, KAKABAI, KAKIAE, KALAM,
  KALOU, KALULI, KAMANO, KAMASA, KAMASAU, KAMBAIRA,
  KAMBERATARO, KAMULA, KANASI, KANDAS, KANDAWO,
  KANINGRA, KANITE, KANUM,SOTA, KAPIN, KAPRIMAN,
  KARA, KARAWA, KARE, KARKAR-YURI, KARORE, KASUA,
  KÂTE, KAULONG, KAWACHA, KELA, KELE, KENATI,
  KEOPARA, KEREAKA, KEREWO, KESAWAI, KEURU,
  KEWA,EAST, KEWA,WEST, KEYAGANA, KHEHEK, KIBIRI,
  KILIVILA, KILMERI, KINALAKNA, KIRE, KIS,
  KIWAI,NORTHEAST, KIWAI,SOUTHERN, KOBON, KOGUMAN,
  KOIALI,MOUNTAIN, KOIARI,GRASS, KOITABU, KOIWAT,
  KOL, KOLOM, KOLUAWAWA, KOMBA, KOMBIO, KOMINIMUNG,
  KOMUTU, KONAI, KONOMALA, KOPAR, KORAFE, KORAK,
  KORO, KOROMIRA, KOSENA, KOSORONG, KOVAI, KOVE,
  KOWAKI, KRISA, KUANUA, KUBE, KUBO, KUMALU, KUMAN,
  KUMUKIO, KUNI, KUNIMAIPA, KUNJA, KUOT, KURTI,
  KWATO, KWOMA, KWOMTARI, KYAKA, KYENELE, LABEL,
  LABU, LAEKO-LIBUAT, LAK, LAMOGAI, LANGAM,
  LANTANAI, LAUA, LAVATBURA-LAMUSONG, LEIPON, LELE,
  LEMBENA, LEMIO, LENKAU, LESING-GELIMI,
  LEWADA-DEWARA, LIHIR, LIKUM, LILAU, LONIU, LOTE,
  LOU, LUKEP, LUSI, MADAK, MAGORI, MAIA, MAIADOM,
  MAIANI, MAILU, MAISIN, MAIWA, MAIWALA, MAKOLKOL,
  MALA, MALALAMAI, MALAS, MALASANGA, MALE,
  MALEU-KILENGE, MALI, MALINGUAT, MALOL, MAMAA,
  MAMUSI, MANAGALASI, MANAM, MANAMBU, MANDARA,
  MANDI, MANDOBO, MANEM, MANGSENG, MAPE, MAPENA,
  MARAMBA, MARI, MARI, MARI, MARIA, MARIK, MARING,
  MATEPI, MATO, MATUKAR, MAUWAKE, MAWAK, MAWAN,
  MBO-UNG, MBULA, MEBU, MEDEBUR, MEHEK, MEKEO,
  MEKMEK, MELPA, MENDE, MENGEN, MENYA, MERAMERA,
  MESE, MIAN, MIANI, MIGABAC, MINANIBAI, MINAVEHA,
  MINDIRI, MINIGIR, MISIMA-PANEATI, MIU, MOERE,
  MOIKODI, MOKERANG, MOLIMA, MOMARE, MONDROPOLON,
  MONGOL, MONUMBO, MORAWA, MORESADA, MORIGI,
  MOSIMO, MOTU, MOTU,HIRI, MOUK-ARIA, MUDUAPA,
  MUFIAN, MUM, MUMENG, MUNIT, MUNIWARA, MUNKIP,
  MURIK, MURUPI, MUSAK, MUSAN, MUSAR, MUSOM,
  MUSSAU-EMIRA, MUTU, MUTUM, MUYUW, MWATEBU,
  NAASIOI, NABAK, NABI, NAFI, NAGOVISI, NAHU, NAI,
  NAKAMA, NAKANAI, NAKE, NAKWI, NALI, NALIK, NAMBU,
  NAMIA, NANKINA, NARA, NARAK, NAUNA, NAWARU,
  NEHAN, NEK, NEKGINI, NEKO, NEND, NETE, NGAING,
  NGALA, NGALUM, NII, NIKSEK, NIMI, NIMO, NIMOA,
  NINGERA, NINGGERUM, NINGIL, NOBANOB, NOMANE,
  NOMU, NOTSI, NUGURIA, NUK, NUKUMANU, NUMANGGANG,
  NUMBAMI, NYINDROU, ODOODEE, OGEA, OKSAPMIN, OLO,
  OMATI, ÖMIE, OMWUNRA-TOQURA, ONJAB, ONO,
  ONOBASULU, ONTENU, OPAO, OROKAIVA, OROKOLO, OUNE,
  OWENIA, OWINIGA, OYA'OYA, PAGI, PAHI, PAK-TONG,
  PANIM, PAPAPANA, PAPI, PAPITALAI, PARAWEN, PARE,
  PASI, PATEP, PATPATAR, PAWAIA, PAYNAMAR, PEI,
  PELE-ATA, PENCHAL, PETATS, PIAME, PINAI-HAGAHAI,
  PIU, PIVA, PONAM, POUYE, PSOHOH, PUARI, PULABU,
  PURARI, PYU, QAQET, RAMOAAINA, RAO, RAPOISI,
  RAPTING, RAWA, RAWO, REMA, REMPI, RERAU,
  ROCKYPEAK, ROMKUN, RONJI, RORO, ROTOKAS, RUMU,
  SAEP, SAKAM, SALIBA, SALT-YUI, SAMBERIGI, SAMO,
  SAMOSA, SANIYO-HIYEWE, SAPOSA, SARUGA, SAUK,
  SAUSI, SEIMAT, SELEPET, SENE, SENGO, SENGSENG,
  SEPA, SEPEN, SERA, SETA, SETAMAN, SETI, SEWABAY,
  SIALUM, SIANE, SIHAN, SILEIBI, SILIPUT, SILOPI,
  SIMBALI, SIMBARI, SIMEKU, SINAGEN, SINASINA,
  SINAUGORO, SINSAURU, SIO, SIROI, SISSANO, SIWAI,
  SOLONG, SOLOS, SOM, SONGUM, SONIA, SORI-HARENGAN,
  SOWANDA, SUARMIN, SUAU, SUDEST, SUENA, SUGANGA,
  SUKI, SULKA, SUMARIUP, SUMAU, SURSURUNGA,
  SUSUAMI, TABO, TABRIAK, TAI, TAIAP, TAINAE,
  TAIRORA, TAIRUMA, TAIS, TAKIA, TAKUU, TAMI,
  TANGGA, TANGGU, TANGUAT, TAO-SUAMATO, TAUADE,
  TAULIL-BUTAM, TAUPOTA, TAUYA, TAWALA, TELEFOL,
  TENIS, TEOP, TEREBU, TIANG, TIFAL, TIGAK, TIMBE,
  TINPUTZ, TIRIO, TITAN, TOARIPI, TOBO, TOKPISIN,
  TOKANO, TOMOIP, TORAU, TORRICELLI, TUMA-IRUMU,
  TUMLEO, TUNGAG, TURAKA, TUWARI, UARE, UBIR, UFIM,
  UISAI, UKURIGUMA, ULAU-SUAIN, UMANAKAINA,
  UMBU-UNGU, UMEDA, UNEAPA, UNSERDEUTSCH, URA,
  URAPMIN, URAT, URI, URIGINA, URIM, URIMO, USAN,
  USARUFA, USINO, UTARMBUNG, UTU, UYA, VALMAN,
  VANIMO, VEHES, WA'EMA, WAB, WABUDA, WADAGINAM,
  WAFFA, WAGAWAGA, WAGI, WAHGI, WAHGI,NORTH, WALIO,
  WAMAS, WAMPAR, WAMPUR, WAMSAK, WANAMBRE, WANAP,
  WANIB, WANTOAT, WÁRA, WARAPU, WARIS, WARUNA,
  WASAMBU, WASEMBO, WASKIA, WATAKATAUI, WATALUMA,
  WATAM, WATUT,MIDDLE, WATUT,NORTH, WATUT,SOUTH,
  WEDAU, WELIKI, WERE, WERI, WIAKI, WIRU,
  WOGAMUSIN, WOGEO, WOM, WUTUNG, WUVULU-AUA, YABEM,
  YABEN, YABONG, YAGARIA, YAGOMI, YAGWOIA, YAHANG,
  YAKAIKEKE, YAKAMUL, YALE, YAMAP, YAMBES,
  YANGULAM, YAPUNDA, YARAWATA, YAREBA, YAU, YAU,
  YAUL, YAWEYUHA, YAWIYO, YEI, YEKORA, YELE,
  YELOGU, YERAKAI, YESSAN-MAYO, YIL, YIMAS, YIS,
  YOIDIK, YONGKOM, YOPNO, YUBANAKOR, ZENAG, ZIA,
  ZIMAKANI, ARIBWATSA, BINA, HERMIT, KANIET,
  KARAMI, MULAHA, OUMA, URUAVA, YOBA

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Geography
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Language count
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Endangered languages

• The Ethnologue lists 417 languages that are
  nearly extinct -- those with only a few elderly
  speakers, and no children learning the language.
• Roughly half of the world's languages are
  moribund, in the sense that new generations of
  children are not being raised to speak them.
• Within a century, it is likely that the number of
  living languages will be cut at least in half,
  and may well be fewer than 1,000.

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• Polish
• Population total all countries 44,000,000

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What is a language?

• Arabic
• certainly one of the world's major languages
• is missing entirely from the list of the "top
  twenty."
• Arabic in all its varieties
• 35 according to the Ethnologue
• has 219 million speakers world-wide,
• with this count would be 4 on the list above.

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Arabic Varieties and Speakers

• Egyptian 46.3
• Algerian 22.4
• Moroccan 19.5
• Upper Egyptian 18.9
• Sudanese 17.5
• Lebanese-Syrian 15.0
• Iraqi 13.9

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Chinese

• Mandarin (70)
• Wu (8)
• Cantonese (Yue) (5)
• Hunan (Xiang) (5)
• Hakka (3)
• Southern Min (3)
• Gan (Jiangxi) (2)
• Northern Min (1)

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Chinese

• often called a "language
• in fact consists of at least seven or eight
  languages
• with enormous internal dialect variation.
• Mandarin
• the modern standard, spoken in the central and
  northern regions
• Cantonese
• spoken in the south, including Hong Kong, and in
  many Chinese communities abroad
• are not mutually intelligible.

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Hindi and Urdu

• in some ways essentially the same language.
• For historical and political reasons,
• they have different writing systems,
• some different strata of borrowed vocabulary,
• Sanskrit for Hindi
• Arabic and Persian for Urdu
• ordinary speakers are likely to be able to
  understand one another quite well.
• Combining their counts would give us 181 60
  241 million speakers, a 33 increase relative to
  Hindi alone, putting the Hindi/Urdu combination
  into fourth place -- though Hindi was fifth.

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Scandinavian languages

• have a great deal of mutual intelligibility
• but since they are associated with different
  countries
• they are usually called languages
• especially Norwegian and Swedish, but also Danish

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Kashubian

• a language or a dialect?

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Dialects and languages

• A language is a dialect with an army and a navy
• originally due to linguist Uriel Weinreich).
• In other words, national boundaries often have as
  much to do with the use of the terms as the
  linguistic question of mutual intelligibility.
• There are not linguistic criteria what a language
  is.
• The decision generally falls to political and
  cultural affinities between speech communities.

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Dialects and languages

• If two speech communities use linguistic forms
  that are intelligible to them,
• they use dialects
• if they are not intelligible
• they use languages.
• "Intelligibility" is a matter of degree, it's
  often impossible to draw clear lines between
  languages.

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Dialect continuum
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Dialect continua
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Dialect continuua

• Moving from Portugal to Italy, the local dialect
  gradually shifts from town to town.
• The official language in the government and
  schools may change radically when a border is
  reached, but the speech in the marketplace may be
  quite similar on each side of the border.
• Only with national centralization of education
  and media is this situation changing.

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Germanic continuum
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Germanic continuum
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Germanic continuum
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Language families of the world
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Indo-European languages
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Indo-European languages
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Indo-European languages
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Language relatedness

• By what evidence can we say that languages are,
  in fact, related?
• A relationship is proved by systematic
  resemblances between languages.
• Linguists rely on systematic relationships among
  languages to establish that they belong to the
  same family.
• The basic idea is that when a change occurs
  within a speech community, it gets diffused
  across the entire community of speakers of the
  language.
• If, however, the communities have split and are
  no longer in contact, a change that happens in
  one community does not get diffused to the other
  community.

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Genetic classification

• Language families are a result of
• genetic (historical) classification of languages
• families families share an ancestor language
• a proto-language.
• A genetic class is a language family,

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largest language families

• Niger-Kordofanian (1489 languages)
• Austronesian (1262 languages)
• Trans-New Guinea (552 languages) (disputed)
• Indo-European (443 languages)
• Afro-Asiatic (372 languages)
• Sino-Tibetan (365 languages)
• Australian (258 languages) (disputed)
• Nilo-Saharan (199 languages)
• Oto-Manguean (172 languages)
• Austro-Asiatic (168 languages)
• Sepik-Ramu (104 languages) (disputed)
• Dravidian (75 languages)
• Tai-Kadai (70 languages)
• Tupi (70 languages)

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Cognates

• Words in two or more daughter languages that
  derive from the same word in the ancestral
  language are known as cognates.
• Sound changes work to alter the actual phonetic
  form of the word in the different languages, but
  we can still recognize them as originating from a
  common source because of the regularities within
  each language.
• An initial step in determining whether languages
  are related is to look for cognates, especially
  among basic vocabulary items that were reliably
  present in the ancestral language -- so things
  like sun, water, sister, five, but not
  necessarily chariot or loom.

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Germanic languages
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Cognates
Dutch Danish
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Cognates

• Lithuanian Greek Persian

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Cognates

• Mongolian Hungarian Mandarin Japanese

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• Mongolian
• a Mongolic language, a Turkic language? (Altaic)
• Hungarian
• a Finno-Ugric language
• Mandarin Chinese
• Sino-Tibetan
• Japanese
• ?? a language isolate
• does not seem to be related to any other language

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Japanese

• The Japanese numbers given here were actually
• borrowed long ago from another variety of Chinese
  (not Mandarin),
• that is why one can see some resemblances,
• especially for "three
• The Japanese alphabet was also borrowed from
  Chinese.

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language isolates

• languages with no demonstrable genetic
  relationship with other living languages
• that is, one that has not been proved to descend
  from a common ancestor to any other language.
• Korean (Asia)
• Basque (Europe)
• Ainu (Asia)
• Burushaski (northern Pakistan)
• Japanese (Asia)

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Ainu
a famous researcher on the Ainu was Pilsudski
Bronislaw Pilsudski, brother of Józef