Social

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Chapter 15

• Social
• Psychology

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Social Psychology - What is it?
In a general sense, Social Psychology addresses
the interaction between individuals and the
society they live in. For example, it addresses
issues like gt How do we form representations
of ourselves and others? gt How do our
attitudes arise? What role does prejudice
play and how can it be understood? gt How is our
behaviour molded and affected by the social
context we are in?
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Schemas Revisited
Recall from our Developmental chapter that we
spoke a lot about schemas, and how they can be
used to provide information about roles, events,
and expected behaviours in certain
situations. Social Psychology also spends a lot
of time focusing on schemas, and how they
determine our social behaviours. As the first
example of this, the textbook spends some
time discussing the way we use schemas to form
impressions of ourselves and others, then use the
schemas to make attributions concerning
behaviours.
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A Taste of Assessment Formation
When we meet somewhat for the first time, we know
very little about them and hence have very
little information about how they might act in a
given situation. However, we may eventually form
a schema that we use to represent that person.
This schema may be formed on the basis of actual
observed behaviours, and on stereotypes connected
with their interests (e.g., hes a
quarterback). We may then use that schema to
fill in the holes when we hear about that
person subsequently, or when we are trying to
guess their behaviour for any reason.
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Are First Impressions Really Important?
Recall that Piaget talked about the notions of
assimilation versus accomodation (Steve will
remind you what they are). Once you decide that
someone is worth accomodating into a schema of
their own, the initial schema you set up could
be very important as it is that schema that you
will then try to assimilate new information
into. Is there any evidence that the first
information you learn about someone has a strong
influence on your assessment of them? Yup
something called the primacy effect. gt
intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical,
stubborn gt stubborn, critical, impulsive,
industrious, intelligent
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What Rules do we use to Modify Schemas?
Im not going to go into this in nearly the
detail the textbook does, but I will gave you the
gist of it as the ideas are interesting (though
Im not sure what data supports them). The basic
issue is this, someone for whom you have a
schema is behaving in some manner will you
attribute that behaviour to the person and
potential modify your schema of them, or will you
attribute it to some environmental (social)
factor and therefore not see it as really
bearing on the person at all. Table 15.1 sums up
three of the factors we may use when making this
decision Steve will now go through it.
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Prejudice
Being prejudice means that you have set opinions
about someones character that are not based on
experience but, instead, on preconceived notions
alone - prejudge. In a way, prejudice can be
seen as the negative side of schemas and it goes
well beyond colour of skin issues. Related to
the issue of stereotypes which, the text claims
(and I differ in my definition), refers to false
beliefs generally excepted within a culture. I
personally see stereotypes as a generalization,
that does not always hold on an individual
level. gt Related issues Discrimination,
Ethnocentralism
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The Origins of Prejudice
Prejudice is seen in virtually all walks of life,
and even ethnic groups who had been oppressed
often go on to oppress when they overthrow their
oppressors. It seems as though, at its core,
prejudice may reflect the negative side of the
fact that we all feel most comfortable and
trustful of people we see as being like
ourselves, and are distrustful and perhaps even
fearful of those we perceive as
different. Several factors seem to contribute
to the formation and maintenance of the false
stereotypes that underlie most forms of
prejudice, including ...
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Prejudice as a Result of Media
The media (e.g., television) often portrays
people of certain groups in false ways. Given
the general availability of the media, such false
portrayal can reach many people and can effect
the schemas they have for the group in
question. Thus, people have good reason to be
concerned when some group that they belong to is
being falsely portrayed has this happened to
you?
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Prejudice as a Result of Competition
Competition also seems an important factor for
the creation and maintenance of prejudicial
attitudes. Textbook story of Eagles vs.
Rattlers gt Random assignment to cabins gt Using
activities to create a bond gt Using competition
to create mistrust gt Eventually using
co-operation to try and get rid of the
negative attitudes Demonstrates that prejudism
need not be related to skin colour, ethnic class,
religion, or gender and group
membership appears sufficient.
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Prejudice and Self-Esteem
Interestingly, behaving in a prejudicial manner
may be a reaction to low self-esteem. This
interpretation is suggested by a study in which
self-esteem was manipulated by arranging for one
group of subjects to accidentally knock over
some cards making work for the experimenter
(and hypothetically lowering their
self-esteem). Both groups were subsequently
asked their attitudes on French- Canadians, and
the attitudes of the knock over group were far
more prejudicial.
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
Sometimes bad schemas are self-feeding. The
textbook mentions a situation where men spoke
with women on the phone who they though were
either attractive or not, and then interpreted
the conversation in line with their pre-conceived
notions. Sometimes though, this can be even more
self-fulfilling gt Steves example of how the
incorrect view that some group is
aggressive
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Eliminating Prejudice
It should come as no surprise that the best way
to eliminate prejudism is via education. That
is, people need to know when the stereotypes they
hold are incorrect. One example of this in
action is the example of teaching kids about
people with handicaps. However, education is not
the whole solution for all long as competition
and negative circumstances exist, prejudice
will likely also exist.
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Social Influences
Another major field of study within the realm of
Social Psychology is the manner in which groups
or individuals bias us to behave in certain
ways. In fact, we will discuss these separately,
first focussing on the effects that being part of
a group may have gt Conformity (Reciprocity
Commitment) gt Bystander Intervention then
discussing aspects of individuals that may make
them have more or less of an effect on our
behaviour. gt Physical Attractiveness gt
Authority
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Conformity/Social Norms
Within any society, there are often explicit
rules of social conduct (i.e., Laws) and implicit
rules of social conduct (appropriate
behaviour). These implicit rules are rules we
conform to as a society, and generally these
rules make living together more comfortable. In
fact, the attraction to conform to the thoughts
or opinions of some group of which you are a
member seems quite strong. gt Sherifs
autokenetic effect gt Aschs line judgement
task These effects are assumed to occur because
we like to be liked, and we like to be right.
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Reciprocity Commitment
Another powerful social norm effect is the
effect of reciprocity when someone does us a
favour, or gives us something, we feel a very
strong compulsion to return the favour. gt Free
food at supermarkets Similarly, if we can be
influences into committing to some opinion or
behaviour, the small commitment will make it
much more likely that we will then be willing to
make a larger commitment. gt Freedman and
Fraser Drive Carefully experiment gt Car
salesmen low-balling you.
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Bystander Intervention
One negative influence of group conformity is the
fact that a person is less likely to come to
anothers aid, when the first person is part of a
larger group. Famous Kitty Genovese murder,
witnessed by at least 38 people, but reported
(and aided) by none. The most well-known
psychological study of this effect was
conducted by Darley and Latane. This effect is
thought to be due to diffusion of
responsibility, and worry over doing the wrong
thing.
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One on One Influences
In addition to being interested in the manner in
which groups influence our behaviour, social
psychologists are also interested in the factors
that determine how strongly certain
individuals will influence us. We will focus on
two factors they have uncovered 1) we are more
strongly influenced by people we view as
being physically attractive, and 2) We can be
very strongly influenced by people we
perceive of as authority figures.
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Physical Attractiveness
Physical good looks are one of the most important
factors underlying whether we find someone
likable, and we most definitely do treat good
looking people differently. As one example,
Kulka and Kessler had subjects serve as jurors in
a mock trial, where the defendant was previously
categorized as being attractive or not subjects
awarded attractive people 10,051, unattractive
5,623 But is it just the case that we are nicer
to more attractive people because we want them as
our friends, or do they actually have a stronger
influence on us?
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Wanna Buy a Car?
A study by Smith and Engel (1968) showed subjects
two versions of an advertisement for a new car,
one that featured an attractive model, one that
featured a less attractive model. Subjects who
say the attractive ad subsequently rated
the car in question as being faster, more
appealing, more expensive looking, and better
designed! And these arent even models that we
are ever likely to meet or interact with
imagine the impact attractive real-people may
have
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Authority
Another major factor that determines how much
influence a person will have on us is their
relative authority. We already talked a bit
about the Milgram experiments, but Steve will now
briefly recap. The critical point is that the
majority of subjects continued to administer what
they believed to be a painful shock, to
someone that (for all they knew) was unconscious
and perhaps in dire trouble. They did so
because the experimenter told them to and
that seems to be the only reason.
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It for 15
The textbook talks about other group and
individual influences in addition to those I
mentioned. It also has a section telling you how
to resist some of these influences. Finally,
there is a brief section focussing on some of
the social factors underlying love and
attraction. All of this I must leave to you as,
in the interest of classtime, we must move on to
Chapter 16 Stress you know, that feeling you
have just before a big exam. )