Psychology as a Science

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Psychology as a Science

• Research Methods
• Experimental Designs

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What is the study of Psychology?

• Science that studies behavior and the
  physiological and cognitive processes that
  underlie it, and it is the profession that
  applies the accumulated knowledge of this science
  to practical problems (Weiten, 1999)
• relatively young science
• the Rodney Dangerfield of the sciences
  (Stanovich, 2001)

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Why a Science?

• Limits to intuition and common sense
• Hindsight bias
• Availability heuristic (the person-who statistic)
• Testimonials
• Confirmation bias
• Illusory Correlations
• So, we need to rely on Scientific Methodology

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Scientific Method

• Systematic Empiricism
• Controlled Observation
• operational definitions
• explains a concept in terms of the operations
  used to produce it
• Accurate (valid) and reliable measurements
• Dependent variables
• Always have to measure something
• Hypothetical concepts / constructs

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Scientific Theory

• a logically organized set of propositions
  (claims, statements, assertions) that serves to
  define events (concepts), describe relationships
  among these events, and explain the occurrence of
  these events p. 30
• Ideas about how nature works
• Working model
• vary in scope and perspective
• observation (data), logic, and intuition
• guide and organize empirical knowledge

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Hypotheses

• Testable (clearly defined questions and terms,
  noncircular)
• deductive or inductive reasoning
• More often hypotheses are deduced from theory and
  provide feedback to the theory
• research hypotheses
• statistical hypotheses
• allow us to confirm or disconfirm NEVER PROVE
• Even if hypothesis not supported there could be
  many reasons why

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Goals of the Scientific Method

• Description, prediction, and explanation
• Different methods/tools used to achieve these
  goals
• depends on stage of investigation and your
  hypothesis
• Develop a strategy
• Basic versus Applied research
• development of theory vs application of theory
• general principles vs utility of principles

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Descriptive Research

• Qualitative or quantitative
• Nomothetic approach
• develop generalizations and universal laws
• Idiographic research
• focus on individual
• Case studies (ethnographic)
• Naturalistic observation
• Unobtrusive measures
• Historical / archival
• Surveys and questionnaires

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Prediction

• Knowing current behavior or situation can we
  predict future behavior?
• Statistical Correlation
• Cant necessarily explain why! could be a
  spurious relationship
• could be some other variable that is influencing
  the relationship

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Understanding/Explaining

• Causal inferences
• covariation of events
• a time-order relationship
• the elimination of plausible alternative causes
• manipulation and control
• true independent variable
• random assignment
• confounding or extraneous variables
• internal and external validity

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Independent Variables

• At least two levels of comparison different
  conditions
• True independent variables
• Individual difference variables
• Subject variables
• Natural groups
• Quasi-independent variables

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Scientific Integrity

• Ethical guidelines in conducting research and in
  professional behavior (chp 2)
• seek knowledge
• carry out research in a competent manner
• report results accurately
• manage available resources honestly
• fairly acknowledge, in scientific communications,
  the individuals who have contributed their ideas
  or their time and effort
• consider the consequences to society of any
  research endeavor
• speak out publicly on societal concerns related
  to a scientist's knowledge and expertise

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Institutional Review Board

• Before conducting any research it must be
  approved by an Institutional Review Board for
  human participants
• Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees
• made up of faculty from many disciplines, as well
  as people from the community

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Risk/Benefit Ratio

• Subjective evaluation of the cost and benefits to
  the individual and society
• improve the human condition
• difficult especially when animal participants are
  used
• risks include physical injury, social injury, and
  mental or emotional stress
• minimal risk (not greater than everyday life)

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Dealing With Risk

• Ways to overcome potential risks
• in instructions
• by screening participants
• anonymity
• confidentiality
• code numbers
• informed consent
• allowed to withdraw without penalty
• should have appropriate inducement
• privacy

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Deception

• Withholding (omission) or intentionally
  misinforming (commission)
• Continuum
• sometimes justifiable
• minimize placebo effects
• must ALWAYS debrief the participants
• participating in research should be an
  educational experience

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Why use animals?

• Underlying mechanisms the same
• Study animals for their own sake
• sheds light on human evolution
• more control -- legal and ethical issues

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Animal Research

• Controversial
• advancement or potential benefits for humans
• speciism
• especially in biomedical field
• AIDS
• split brain
• development of vacines