Behavior Principles in Everyday Life

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Behavior Principles in Everyday Life

• Modeling and Observational Learning
• Chapter 10

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Models

• When one person observes the actions of another,
  the experience may change the observers future
  behavior.
• People are influenced by observing the behavior
  of others.
• The people who first display a behavior are
  called models.
• Observers who see, hear, or read about a models
  behavior (1) gain information about the models
  behavior, and (2) may use this information to
  guide their own behavior.

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Models Cont.

• Models can be real (bodily present) or symbolic
  (presented via books, movies, TV, or verbal
  descriptions).
• An observer may show behavior changes immediately
  after seeing a models behavior, after a delay,
  or never.
• There are times when an observer does the
  opposite from the model. This inverse imitation
  is common when an observer does not like the
  model, sees the model get punished, or is in an
  environment where conformity or imitation is
  being punished.

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Types of Modeling Effects

• There are three main types of modeling effects
• Observational learning
• Inhibitory and disinhibitory effects
• Response facilitation effects
• Mirror neurons tend to indicate a biological
  basis for imitating actions, especially emotional
  responses

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Three Types of Modeling Effects

• (1.) Observation learning involves the
  learning of a new behavior. When an observer
  sees a model do a behavior that the observer has
  never done, the observer may learn how to the
  behavior merely by watching. When a models
  behavior is only one or two steps ahead of the
  observers present level of competence, the
  observer may satisfactorily replicate the new
  behavior after the first exposure to the models
  behavior. New behavior can usually be learned
  much more rapidly and efficiently by
  observational learning than by shaping alone.

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• The use of live modeling is nicely illustrated in
  the treatment of a 3-year-old girl with a
  debilitating fear of animals. The girl would not
  go places where she thought an animal would be
  present. Upon seeing a dog or cat, she would
  freeze, shake visibly, go into a fetal position,
  and report fear of harm.
• Assessment was conducted to measure these signs
  of fear when the girl was in the presence of a
  dog and a cat.

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• Treatment was carried out by the girls mother in
  the backyard of their home. Prior to the
  treatment sessions, the mother was coached by a
  therapist on how to conduct the modeling
  sessions.
• Each day, treatment began with the mother and
  child spending a few minutes playing with a
  stuffed dog and cat. The mother modeled petting
  and holding the stuffed animal. The child was
  encouraged to pet and hold the animal as well and
  was praised for doing so.

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• After time with the stuffed animals, a live dog
  and cat were then introduced in each session. The
  child was told that she would not be require to
  move toward or to touch the live animal.
• The mother modeled approach behavior and petting.
  The child was then encouraged to walk over and to
  engage in these behaviors as well. The mother
  encouraged the child to try the behaviors.
  Gradually, the child engaged in increased
  approach behaviors modeled by the mother.

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Stimulus enhancement

• A stimulus may lose aversive properties or become
  a reinforcer for an individual as a result of
  that individual observing another member of its
  species interact with that stimulus or one
  similar to it.

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Imitative learning based on conditioning

• Stimulus enhancement can be seen when toys that
  resemble objects that adults interact
  withvehicles, machinery, and all types of
  toolsbecome reinforcing to children.
• A persons fear of some object or situation
  decreasing in intensity as a result of that
  person observing someone else interact with that
  object or situation is another familiar example,
  and in fact is the basis of a systematic
  procedure used to help people overcome irrational
  fears.

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India's first execution in 13 years has claimed
an additional toll of at least two children dead
in mishaps as they re-enacted the highly
publicised hanging of a man convicted of raping
and murdering a schoolgirl. Two weeks ago,
41-year-old Dhananjoy Chatterjee was hanged in
the eastern city of Kolkata after 13 years on
death row. On Sunday, 14-year-old Prem Gaekwad
died when he tied one end of a rope around his
neck and swung the other end on a ceiling fan in
his Mumbai home, in an apparent re-enactment.
"The boy's father told us Prem was a very
bright but curious kid and kept asking questions
about how Dhananjoy would be hanged," said
assistant police inspector Dilip Suryawanshi.
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Three Types of Modeling Effects Cont.

• (2.) Inhibitory and disinhibitory effects
  occur when observing a model reduces or increases
  the chances that an observer will do a behavior
  at some later time. No new behavior is learned.
• (3.) Response facilitation occurs when a
  models behavior serves as an SD for a similar
  response by the observer.

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Pavlovian ConditioningVicarious Emotional
Responses

• Models give off many social cues that can
  function as CSs for the observer, and many CSs
  elicit conditioned emotional responses in the
  observer.
• These conditioned emotional responses are called
  vicarious emotional responses, to indicate that
  the observer is taking part in the feelings and
  emotions of other people.
• The ability to have vicarious emotional responses
  is learned through Pavlovian conditioning in
  situations where the models behavior is paired
  with USs or CSs that elicit emotional responses
  in the model and observer.

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Pavlovian ConditioningVicarious Emotional
Responses Cont.

• Empathy for the feelings of others is based
  largely on vicarious emotional responses.
• The more similar the past social learning
  experiences of a model and observer, the more
  likely it is that the observer can empathize with
  the model (and vice versa).

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Vicarious Pavlovian Conditioning

• When models provide CSs that elicit vicarious
  emotional responses in an observer, neutral
  stimuli paired with these CSs can also become CSs
  due to higher order Pavlovian conditioning.
• This observational learning of new conditioned
  emotional responses (CERs) via vicarious
  Pavlovian conditioning.

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Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment

• The CERs we learn from a model (via vicarious
  Pavlovian conditioning) can function as secondary
  reinforcers and punishers in our lives, even if
  the model is not present. Once we have learned
  to respond to banjo music or poverty as CSs that
  elicit emotions in us, those CSs can provide
  vicarious reinforcement or punishment for our
  operant behavior.

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Operant Behavior

• Bandura and Walters identified two quite
  different phases acquisition and performance
  in the observational learning of operant
  behavior.
• Acquisition involves perceiving and remembering
  information about a models behavior.
• Performance involves using that information to
  carry out some relevant behavior.

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Acquisition

• (1.) The Models Behavior is Reinforced.
• -If an observer sees that a models behavior has
  practical value because it produces reinforcing
  consequences, the observer is likely to acquire
  information about the behavior. The rewards
  associated with the models behavior may not be
  consciously evaluated by the observer, but
  observers do respond to three kinds of cues that
  facilitate the acquisition of information about
  useful behavior.

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Acquisition Cont.

• 1A. Seeing the Consequences of a Models
  Behavior.
• -Seeing a model receive reinforcers or escape
  punishers is obvious evidence of the usefulness
  of a behavior.
• 1B. Seeing a Models Emotional Responses.
• -Even though an observer may not notice a
  models behavior lead to any detectable
  reinforcers, the models smiles, happy
  explications, and other emotional cues can be
  powerful CSs that indicate the behavior is
  reinforcing because they elicit pleasurable
  vicarious emotions in the observer.

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Acquisition Cont.

• 1C. Respecting or Admiring a Model.
• -Acquisition of information about a modeled
  behavior can occur even though an observer may
  not see a model receive reinforcers or show signs
  of pleasure. Observers will often attend to and
  acquire information from a models behavior if
  the observers respect, admire, or like the model.

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Acquisition Cont.

• (2.) -If an observer sees two models doing
  two different things, the observer usually learns
  more from the model who is more similar to the
  observer (assuming all other variables are
  equal).
• (3.) Similarity of Behavior.
• -When two people are engaged in similar tasks,
  they tend to be more observant of the other
  persons behavior than when they are doing
  different tasks.

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Acquisition Cont.

• (4.) Reinforcement for Vigilance and
  Attention.
• -An observers degree of attentiveness to a
  model can lie anywhere on a continuum from paying
  no attention to the model to focusing very close
  attention to the models behavior. Clearly,
  there can be no acquisition when there is no
  attention. Increasing vigilance increases the
  likelihood that the observer will acquire
  information about the models behavior.
  Vigilance and attention can be modified by (a)
  differential reinforcement, (b) observational
  learning, (c) prompts, and (d) rules.

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Acquisition Cont.

• 4A. Differential Reinforcement.
• -Observers learn to be more attentive when there
  are reinforcers for paying attention.
• 4B. Observational Learning.
• -People also learn when to be vigilant or lax by
  observing others.
• 4C. Prompts.
• -Vigilance and attention can be prompted by
  turning a persons head or body toward the model
  who is to be attended.
• 4D. Rules.
• -Rules and verbal commands are quick and easy
  ways of focusing peoples attention.

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Acquisition Cont.

• (5.) The Visibility of the Modeled Behavior.
• -The more visible a models behavior is for an
  observer, the easier it is for the observer to
  learn from watching.
• (6.) The Easiness of the Modeled Behavior.
• -If a modeled behavior is too many steps ahead
  of an observers skills, the observer may not be
  able to acquire much useful information from the
  model.

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Acquisition Cont.

• Most models fall into one of two main categories
  mastery models or coping models. Mastery models
  demonstrate only the final steps of mastering a
  skill, hence they deprive observers of the
  information needed to traverse the early steps.
  Coping models demonstrate the skills that an
  observer needs to cope with the problems of
  moving up the next one or two steps.
• While coping models are valued for their
  helpfulness in advancing up the next steps of
  learning, mastery models are often valued for the
  inspiration and expertise they bring.

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Performance

• There are two key determinants of behavioral
  performance
• (1.) There are SDs present that signal that
  imitating certain models and behaviors has been
  rewarded in the past.
• (2.) There are SDs that signal that imitating
  certain models and behaviors will be rewarded
  now.
• Although creativity is wonderful, imitation has
  incredible survival value and we could not live
  long without it.

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Performance Cont.

• Much valuable behavior can be acquired and
  preformed more quickly by observational learning
  than any other way.
• Studies on creativity show that imitation is a
  part of the learning that fosters creativity.
  Observational learning does not usually lead to
  exact imitations of modeled behavior.

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Performance Cont.

• Once an observer has acquired behavioral
  information from a model, what factors influence
  when and where that information will be used?
• SDs and S?s control the performance of imitative
  acts, and this stimulus control is influenced by
  both past and present patterns of reinforcement.

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Performance Cont.

• (1.) Past Reinforcement.
• -Past reinforcement for imitating a certain
  model or a certain type of behavior increases the
  probability of performing the modeled behavior in
  SD contexts similar to those in which
  reinforcement occurred in the past.
• -Cues about behavior, models, or contexts that
  precede reinforcement for imitation become SDs
  for performing the modeled behavior. Any cues
  that precede nonreinforcement or punishment for
  imitation become SDs for not performing the
  modeled behavior.

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Performance Cont.

• 1A. Behavior.
• -Due to differential reinforcement,
• people learn that imitating certain kinds
• of behavior brings rewards but that
• imitating other kinds of behavior brings
• punishment. We learn to be sensitive
• to the SDs and SDs that predict
• reinforcement and punishment.

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Performance Cont.

• 1B. Models.
• -After imitating the behavior of various
• models, we learn that imitating successful
• people is more reinforcing than imitating
• failures. Imitating competent and well-liked
• people is usually more reinforcing than
• imitating incompetent and unpopular people
• thus, many features of a model become SDs
• for imitation and others become SDs for not
• imitating.

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Performance Cont.

• 1C. Contexts.
• -Because a behavior may be reinforced in
• one context but not in others, context cues
• become important SDs or SDs that influence
• the performance of imitative behavior.
• (2.) Present Reinforcement.
• -Performance is also influenced by present
  patterns of reinforcement and
  punishment.

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Inverse Imitation

• When an observer performs a response that is
  opposite from a models behavior, the observer is
  doing inverse imitation.
• People learn to do inverse imitation when there
  is reinforcement for behavior that complements or
  differs in other ways from the models
  performance.
• Situations in which inverse imitation is
  reinforced often involve punishment for regular
  imitation.
• There are two main types of inverse imitation.
  The first occurs when an observers behavior must
  complement the models. The second type of
  inverse imitation is only reinforced when the
  observer is being different from the model.

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Inverse Imitation Cont.

• Inverse imitation for being different often
  occurs when observers dislike a model, see
  negative consequences follow a models behavior,
  or receive strong reinforcers for demonstrating
  to others (or to themselves) that they are not
  conformists.

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Negative Consequences To Model

• Children sometimes do inverse imitation of their
  parents behavior. If a girl watches her parents
  spend money recklessly and waste all their wealth
  on frivolous purchases, she may decide to avoid
  their cycle into poverty and homelessness by
  vowing to shun wasteful purchases.
• Notice that people who do inverse imitation do
  not reject all the behavior of relevant models.
  They are most likely to avoid the behaviors which
  they see leading to aversive consequences!

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Nonconformists

• Some people do inverse imitation because they
  have been rewarded for being different or have
  been punished for being conformists.

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Conclusion

• Models can influence an observer in three ways
• (1) by allowing the observer to learn new
  responses,
• (2) by inhibiting or disinhibiting old responses
  in the observers behavior repertoire, or
• (3) by providing SDs that set the occasion for an
  old response that the observer normally does from
  time to time.