Memory Models

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Memory Models

• Shweta Udapudi

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MEMORY
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Stages of Memory

• Encoding ----gt Storage ----gt Retrieval
• To-Be-Remembered (TBR) Item
• Availability
• Accessibility

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Recall vs. Recognition

• Free Recall
• Cued Recall
• Recognition

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Memory Models

• The Multi-store Model
• Rehearsal

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Short-term memory
Long-term Memory
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Forgetting
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Memory Models

• The Multi-store Model
• The Sensory Stores
• Iconic memory
• Echoic memory
• Short Term memory
• Rehearsal
• Chunking

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Memory Models

• The Multi-store Model
• Long Term memory

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Memory Models

• Working Memory Model

Central Executive
Articulatory Loop
Visio-spatial Sketch pad
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Memory Models

• Working memory Model
• The Central Executive
• Modality Free
• The Articulatory Loop
• Verbal Rehearsal System
• The Visio-Spatial Sketch Pad
• Visual Eye and/or Spatial Rehearsal System

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• ANIMAL
• BINGO
• INTERNATIONAL
• COFFEE
• HERO
• ANASTHESIA
• GIGANTIC
• TRIUMPH

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Alternative Theories of Memory

• Flashbulb memory
• Levels of processing Theory
• Encoding Specificity

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Emotions,forgetfulness and ageing

• Abhilasha Sharma

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Effects of emotion on memory
Abhilasha Sharma
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Some examples

• The coin example
• The priming effect
• _og_ _ m_n bogeyman
• _ct_ _ u _ octopus
• The effect of our sub conscious eye witness
  example
• The effects of intensity of words on memory
  recall
• The car accident example
• The effect of context on memory recall
• The classmate example

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Experimental Study of forgetfulness

• Ebbinghaus contribution to memory study
• Systematic and controlled experimental study of
  memory
• Nonsense syllables constant- vowel constant
• zeb, baf, lub, fon, cum,
• Saving Method
• Forgetting Curve
• Single subject experiments

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Ebbingbaus Forgetting Curve
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Limitations in Ebbinghaus Research

• Investigate only the functional relations between
  learning and retention without an explanation of
  mental processes that underlies memory.
• Ignore the relationship between memory and the
  brain.
• Focus on memory in normal individual and ignore
  memory impairment.
• Focus on the pure form of memory without
  considering the application of memory research .

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Theories of forgetfulness

• Trace decay theory
• Interference theory
• Proactive interference
• Retroactive interference

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Effects of ageing on memory
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Areas for research in this field

• provide evidence for the neurobiological
  constraints that lead to resource limitations for
  the old people.
• cognitive resource is a general construct
• whether there are specific pools of resource that
  vary in their age-sensitivity, such as verbal and
  spatial working memory
• understanding the mechanisms governing less
  resource-intensive types of memory
• Studying the automatic component of memory

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Attention

• By Lee Assam

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What is Attention?

• Definition
• Attention can be defined as the taking possession
  of mind in clear and vivid form of one out of
  what seem several simultaneously possible objects
  or trains of thought. In addition, it requires
  withdrawal from some things in order to deal
  effectively with others (William James).

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What is Attention?

• The ability to recognize relevance and screen out
  irrelevance in large volumes of data.
• Once interest on a particular object is raised,
  it focuses the mind on the particular aspect
• What raises our interest will depend on
  individual tasks, goals, knowledge, background
  and preferences

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Types of Attention

• Selective Attention (Focused Attention)
• Divided Attention (Time Sharing)

Processes Involved

• Voluntary Involuntary

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Selective Attention (Focused Attention)

• The ability to attend to one event from what
  amounts to a mass of competing stimuli in the
  environment
• On a daily basis, we are bombarded with stimuli
  that we have to filter through
• People attend to one sensory register at a time
  because of the selective nature of perception

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Selective Attention contd

• Selective attention is important as it helps us
  not to become overloaded with information
• Social psychologist, Milgram, 1970 indicated that
  an individual encounters 220,000 stimuli within a
  10 minute radius of ones office
• People have learnt to adapt to information
  overload by ignoring irrelevant inputs

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Examples of Selective Attention

• Cocktail Party Phenomenon
• Stroop Effect (Visual Selective Attention)

RED BLUE GREEN YELLOW BLUE RED GREEN RED YELLOW
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Divided Attention (Time Sharing)

• The ability to perform more than one cognitive
  task by attending to both at once or by rapidly
  switching attention back and forth between them
  (Wickens, Gordon, Liu, 1998)
• We are constantly involved in the task of
  managing several simultaneous stimuli
• E.g. An Administrative Assistant who types docs ,
  answers the phone and attends to clients

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Divided Attention contd

• When we switch between doing one task and
  another, it usually takes us a little time to get
  into the 'swing' of the new task
• When you are distracted from a primary task, it
  takes you a moment to mentally 'load up' the
  appropriate mind set.

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Example of Divided Attention

• Go along the list.
• When the numbers are blue you need to say to
  yourself whether the font is normal like this (2)
  or italic like this (2).
• When the numbers are red, you need to say to
  yourself whether they are odd or even.
• Pay particular to your speed when you switch
  between one mental set and the other

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Voluntary Attention

• Attention that is directed towards some external
  stimuli by an effort of the will
• You express volition to attend to a stimulus
• Voluntary attention requires effort, will and
  determination
• Examples
• Listening to a speaker giving a lecture
• Reading information on a Web Page with the intent
  of searching for particular information

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Involuntary Attention

• Involves no effort of the will
• You perceive without knowing why and without
  observed instruction
• Involuntary Attention occurs when stimuli change
  sufficiently to attract attention
• Examples are bright and shiny objects and moving
  objects

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Concious and attention

• Jayson Gibson

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Consciousness Attention

• Consciousness is simply being aware, the ability
  to allocate processing capacity.
• Attention is
• Selectivity of information processing
• ability to  maintain focus
• encoding of new stimuli
• ability to detect infrequent signals in a
  continuous stream of stimulus

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Attention and Memory

• User attention has a huge impact on performance
  because of its direct relationship to memory and
  the ability to process information.

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• Look at the following picture and attempt to
  remember what you see

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• Look at the following picture and repeat what you
  see silently

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• Now Take a look at the following

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• Asdfk,
• Dskfhlruvno fufhih dkfhu uurlvvm. Asdfjadf asdfj
  asdfkll losld lsdjf s osdfj fasdfoeoi. Ldkfoj
  adslk af af asdfk jaf lasdf af lasdkfjo.
• Akd slfj,
• jjjskdj

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What does it all mean?

• Red Hart
• Multiple Input
• Pattern Recognition

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Measuring Attention

• The Stroop task
• Electroencephalography (EEG)
• Event Related Potentials

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3 Ring Circus

• Environment
• Various Stimuli
• Task
• Critical
• Non critical

• User State
• Drugs
• Sleep
• Fatigue
• Education
• Class
• Age

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Attention and HCI

• When dealing with Human Computer Interaction we
  are specifically interested in manipulating a
  user attention to have a specific task performed.
• Selective and Divide Attention
• Use of intentional distracter
• Awareness of unintentional distracter

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Application of concepts in HCI

• Lee Assam

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Attention and its Relationship to HCI

• Attention has a huge impact on performance
• Interfaces must focus an individuals attention
  on what they need to be looking at or listening
  to for any given stage of a task guiding their
  attention to the relevant info

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How do we Focus Attention??

• Structure Information
• Use of Color
• Use of Spatial and Temporal Cues
• Alerting Techniques

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Focusing Attention - Structure Information

• Structuring facilitates navigation
• There should exist balance (not too much info on
  the screen and not too little)
• Info should be ordered and grouped into
  meaningful parts
• Display info according to importance
• Most important info in a prominent place
• Less important info is moved to the background
• Availability on demand for infrequent data

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Focusing Attention - Structure Information
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Focusing Attention Use of Color

• Color catches our eyes in nature and on the web
• Use pure, bright, strong colors sparingly or
  between dull background tones
• Do not place light, bright colors mixed with
  white next to each other
• Background or bases should be quiet and subdued
  (grey)
• Do not create a monotonous environment
  (intermingle colors from one large area with
  colors of another)

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Focusing Attention Use of Spatial and Temporal
Cues

• Use white space and dividers in order to attract
  readers to bodies of text
• Space and position important information where
  users can see it easily. This would draw
  attention to the specific areas

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Focusing Attention Alerting Techniques

• May be audio or flashing techniques
• The stimulus stands out from the surrounding
  environment
• The same stimulus may be effective in one
  environment, but totally ineffective in another
  (stimulus must differ significantly from base
  environment e.g. pop-up box on a mostly text web
  page)

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Recent Studies in Attention and HCI Relationships

• Article 1
• Introduction Design and Evaluation of
  Notification User Interfaces
• D. Scott McCrickard, Mary Czerwinski
• Communications of the ACM, Vol 29 No.8,
• November 2002

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Introduction Design and Evaluation of
Notification User Interfaces

• Notification systems attempt to deliver current,
  important information to the computer screen in
  an efficient and effective manner
• All notification systems require that the user
  attends to them to at least some degree if they
  are to succeed (instant messaging, email alerts,
  news)
• Designers must deliver efficient notifications
  without causing unwanted distraction

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Introduction Design and Evaluation of
Notification User Interfaces contd

• Researchers found that icons with simple motions
  can be more effective than using color and shape
  for delivery of notifications with low
  interruption
• Notification Systems facilitate rapid
  availability of important information
• More research and user studies should be
  performed on interruption, reaction and
  comprehension to design and evaluate efficient
  notification systems

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Recent Studies in Attention and HCI Relationships

• Article 2
• Attuning Notification Design to User Goals and
  Attention Costs
• D. Scott McCrickard, C.M. Chewar
• Communications of the ACM, Vol 46 No.3, Mar
  2003, pp 67-72

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Attuning Notification Design to User Goals and
Attention Costs

• In todays world, users want to be notified about
  multiple sources of information while engaged in
  other tasks
• Notification Systems are interfaces specifically
  designed to support user access to additional
  digital information from sources secondary to
  current activities
• Web advertisements seem to be ineffective and
  distracting and are ignored after brief use
• Distraction results from incorrect estimates of
  users task prioritization at design time

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Attuning Notification Design to User Goals and
Attention Costs contd

• Ongoing activities, urgency and attentional focus
  require changes in delivery of information
• Main challenge Prevent unwanted distraction of
  the primary task while delivering info in a
  timely, accurate manner
• Factors Affecting Attention
• Information Layout
• Use of Animation
• Graphical Encoding
• Text Based Animation (best choice for limited
  screen space)
• Variation in animation speed, font-attributes and
  display size

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Attuning Notification Design to User Goals and
Attention Costs contd
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SUMMARY