Atkinson

1
Atkinson Shiffrin theory
Control processes
Sensory Store
STM
LTM
Forget?
forget
forget
2
Atkinson Shiffrin theory

• Limited capacity of STM
• Limited duration of STM
• Acoustic storage
• Research generated focus was on quantitative
  factors (how many items can fit into STM how
  fast do items fade from STM, etc.)

3
Levels of Processing Theory

• Demo experiment
• Memory is a byproduct of perceptual analysis
• Intent to remember is not necessary how info
  processed is what matters
• Semantic processing is (usually) better than
  non-semantic (sensory-physical) processing

4
Is nonsemantic ever better?

• Bransford if nature of info to be remembered is
  nonsemantic, then nonsemantic encoding can be
  better if retrieval cues given, then cues in
  same mode as encoding can be better

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How does LOP differ from AS?

• Qualitative nature of encoding is what matters
  most (more than quantitative, such as how long
  you study)
• No separation between short- and long-term
  memory memory fades as a function of the level
  to which info was process shallow processing
  fades quickly deep processing fades slowly

6
Levels of Processing and Elaboration

• Making associations interconnecting target info
  with other concepts
• Craik Tulving study with sentence frames
  varying in complexity (elaboration)
• Self-reference effect relating info to self
  elaborates it by integrating it with self-schema

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Precise elaboration

• Bransford Stein not just any elaboration
  helps elaboration must make info less arbitrary
• Arbitrary isolated facts without understanding
  of why how
• Precise elaboration cognitive processes that
  aid discovery of such integrating explanatory
  ideas

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Precise Elaboration

• Implications of precise elaboration we should
  require ourselves to generate seek answers to
  how and why questions when learning
  information
• We should look for connections, analogies to
  understand info more deeply
• Deep understanding is main way we can remember
  what we learn over long time periods

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Encoding Specificity

• Degree of similarity between encoding and
  retrieval conditions
• More similar, better memory
• Examples recognizing people depends on knowing
  context you know them from

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Encoding Specificity

• Similarity of physical context can
  matterBaddeleys on-land vs. underwater memory
  studies
• Similarity of mental context probably matters
  more. Perceived similarity of context more
  important than actual similarity of context.

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Emotions Mood Pollyanna Principle

• Tend to remember more pleasant than unpleasant
  memories (word lists autobiographical studies)
  unpleasant memories fade faster
• Info associated with violence less-well
  remembered than if associated with neutral
• Faster recall of pleasant stimuli (order of
  recall)

12
Mood Congruence

• Is info similar or different to mood you are in
  when trying to recall?
• Memory better when similar
• May be why it is hard to get out of bad mood
  tendency to recall negative memories when in bad
  mood

13
Mood-dependent Memory

• Compares mood at encoding with mood at retrieval
• Same yields better memory
• Not a robust effect, however

14
Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

• Explicit conscious attempt to encode retrieve
  info recall recognition typical
• Implicit retrieval is a byproduct of a
  cognitive task, without subjects awareness that
  they are retrieving previously-presented info
  priming tasks common

15
Explicit Implicit Memory

• Dissociation when variable has large effect on
  one task but not on another
• LOP effects large on explicit, but often small or
  null on implicit tasks
• Amnesia weak on explicit often do more
  normally on implicit
• Is memory for having eaten explicit or implicit?
  (experiment has been done)

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Expertise

• Experts have better memory in their own area of
  expertise, but only there
• Why?
• Knowledge structure (helps comprehension, deep
  processing), vivid mental imagery, organizing
  strategically rehearsing info, good at
  reconstructive memory

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Examples of expertise effects

• Professional actors much rehearsal, but also
  focus on why these specific words used to portray
  thoughts motives of character
• Own race bias we are better at identifying
  members of our own race than others
• Demo memory for a common object

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Autobiographical memory

• flashbulb memoryrecall for surprising,
  emotional event
• Recent research just as inaccurate as ordinary
  memories, but tend to be highly confident that
  memory is accurate for flashbulb memories (note
  especially the Talarico Rubin study)

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Autobiographical memory

• Consistency bias we reconstruct past from
  present perspective tendency is to remember our
  previous opinions, etc. as more similar to
  current ones than the actually were
• Source monitoring what is source of info that
  is in memory?

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Autobiographical memory

• Source monitoring actual experience or
  imagination or dream or movie or some other
  source?
• Thinking about imagining an event can make us
  think we actually experienced it

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Constructive Reconstructive memory

• Constructive memory demos (Jenkins study word
  list study)
• What goes into memory storage is result of input
  interacting with various cognitive processes
  (inferences, integration, etc.)
• Reconstructive memory example of eyewitness
  testimony

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Eyewitness testimony

• Juries tend to believe eyewitnesses
• Experimental evidence suggests that eyewitness
  testimony can be unreliable
• Misinformation effect Loftus studies (e.g.,
  bumped vs. smashed into car)
• Represents an example of source monitoring error
  in reconstructive memory

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Eyewitness testimony

• Recovered memory/false memory false memories
  can be created in lab retractions of testimony
  have occurred after parents jailed from
  recovered memories
• Role of questionable techniques in
  eliciting/creating memories (hypnosis,
  encouragement, repeated attempts to retrieve,
  imagining)

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Evidence for Recovered Memories

• Some cases of documented childhood sexual abuse
  person later shows no memory for abuse
• Theory betrayal trauma (Freyd)to be able to
  maintain relationship with caretaker can require
  forgetting abuse

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What to conclude?

• Both false memories and recovered memories can
  occur dont know relative frequencies
• Without independent evidence actual occurrence of
  events causing trauma, caution appropriate when
  evaluating recovered memories