GOALS OF SCIENCE

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GOALS OF SCIENCE

• Allport aims to understand, predict and control
  above level of common sense.
• Three main goals

• Prediction
• Control
• Understanding

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1. Prediction

• Scientists put forward a theory test it
  with H.
• Thorndikes Law of Effect

This has been proven by putting rats and pigeons
in Skinner boxes and reinforcing certain
behaviours. It works, therefore behaviour is
repeated.
2. Understanding
Craik and Lockharts LOP model is predictive, but
doesnt help our understanding of how the memory
is laid down.
3. Control
So if we achieve 1 and 2, we should be able to
control human behaviours through OC and CC.
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PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

• See Scuruy Book and Hitlers Scientists
• Science is
• Objective
• It is objective because it is based on
  experiments
• Knowledge obtained is turned into laws, theories
  and models.
• Logical positivism we can only be sure about
  what we observe (behaviourist
• approach). Skinner There is no place in a
  scientific analysis of behaviour for
• mind or self.
• BUT
• Kuhn argued that science has important social
  and subjective aspects.
• Popper argued that testing a hypothesis several
  times and getting consistent
• findings means we can make generalisations in
  the present but not in the future.
• Russell turkey thinks each day I am fed, so I
  will be fed tomorrow. But its Xmas!
• So we cannot establish a clear discussion between
  science and non science.

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NEW DEFINITIONS OF SCIENCE

• Objectivity data must be collected as
  objectively
• as possible.
• 2. Falsifiability scientific theories can be
  disproved by
• evidence.
• Paradigm there is a generally accepted
  theoretical
• orientation within a science.
• 4. Replicability findings should be repeatable.

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1. Objectivity

• Traditionally, scientific observations are
  entirely objective.
• Popper not possible to simply observe
  without a notion of what we are
• looking for. Scientific observation is driven
  by hypothesis. What you observe
• is driven by what you expect to see.
• Skinner box - objective measure of rats
  reinforcement is determined by
• bar presses
• But
• Can occur with right paw, left paw, nose, tail.
• Gergen social constructionism point out that
  all observation requires a
• prior viewpoint.
• Perfect objectivity cannot be achieved
• e.g. a person presses a lever to deliver an
  electric shock in Migram setup.
• We cannot determine the persons intention to
  harm.

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2. Falsifiability

• Any scientific hypothesis must be open to the
  possibility of being disproved.
• All ravens are black wed only need to find one
  albino raven to disprove
• this theory.
• Popper argued that it is the possibility of
  being able to falsify which separates
• science from religion and pseudo-sciences
  (psychoanalysis, Marxism).
• examples of falsifiable theories
• Eysenck 67 those high in neuroticism (anxious
  and depressed) should be more fully responsive
  that those low on it. Most studies which have
  tested have not supported the theory.
• Broadbent 58 filter theory. If two messages
  are presented at the
• same time, one to each ear, filter only allows
  one of them to be processed thoroughly.
• Clear prediction has been falsified.
• Unfalsifiable Theories
• Freud non falsifiable e.g. id, ego, superego.
• Maslow hierarachy of needs

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3. PARADIGM KUHNS Approach

• A paradigm is a general theoretical orientation
  which is accepted in a field
• of study when strong evidence collects against
  it, it is replaced by another
• paradigm.
• Kuhn argues that there are three stages in the
  development of a science
• 1. Pre-Science no accepted paradigm. Wide
  range of opinion. See Scuruy p1-6. The Plague
  killed cats and dogs.
• 2. Normal Science a generally accepted paradigm
  which accounts for the known phenomena.
  Influences the experiment and how findings are
  explained, e.g. discovery of vitamin C in oranges
  and lemons (p184).
• Newtonian physics up to Relativity theory.

• Revolutionary Science when evidence against an
  old paradigm
• reaches a certain point paradigm shift. Old
  paradigm replaced by new one, e.g. Copernicus
  planets and sun revolve round earth.
• Darwins theory replaced bible story. First born
  are less likely to adopt new paradigm less
  practice at rebelling.

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Where does Psychology fit in?

• Kuhn argued that psychology has failed to develop
  a paradigm, so is at pre-
• science stage.
• This is true there are several approaches. So
  psychologists do not support the same paradigm.
• It is a fragmented discipline. Has connections
  with
• Biology
• Physiology
• Biochemistry
• Neurology
• Sociology
• A biochemist will have little in common with a
  sociologist, even if both
• are investigating criminal behaviour.

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• Valentine and Behaviourism
• Argued that behaviourism does have a paradigm.
  Behaviourism has influenced
• psychology but its insistence that psychology is
  the study of behaviour and that
• behaviour should be observed in controlled
  experiments. Also that learning is
• fundamental to psychology and learning can be
  understood through OC and
• CC.
• BUT
• It is not clear that behaviourism is a paradigm.
  Behaviourisms impact is at a
• methodological level, rather than theoretical.
  So in a sense psychology is still
• at pre-science stage.

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4. Replicability

• This is a requirement for a subject to be
  regarded as a science. Replicability is
• best achieved when experiments are carefully
  controlled. Lowest when
• experimenter is unable to manipulate the
  variables of interest.
• Clear evidence from Skinner box
• Schedules of reinforcement
• Fixed interval, e.g. 30 seconds
• Animal stops responding immediately after
  receiving food therefore learned not to bother.
  Animal starts responding again as reward time
  approaches.
• Replicability In psychology is high in
  controlled experiments , e.g. Asch.

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Lab Experiments

• Permit high control and good replicability.
  Good internal validity. Heather
• argues that all we can learn in lab experiments
  is how strangers interact in
• unusual situations.
• Internal validity Validity of research
  within its context.
• High replicability
• External validity how representative the
  behaviour is of everyday life.
• Ecological validity generalisability
• In experiments, experimenter rather that
  participant determines what happens.
• in every day life we determine what we do.

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• Non Scientific Approaches
• Humanists and Social Constructionists agree that
  psychology should not be a
• science.
• Humanistic Approaches
• Maslow and Rogers favour phenomenology, i.e.
  people report their experiences in
• as pure a way as possible. Rogers this gives
  the deepest insights.
• Of the three goals, Humanism stresses
  understanding but does not attach much
• importance to prediction and control.
• Social Constructionist Approach
• Argue that there is no objective data. Knowledge
  of the world is based on social
• contructions.
• Facts are simply versions of events. Scientific
  objectivity can only exist in the
• cultural and historical context of the time in
  which it is carried out, e.g. Asch using
• cane on school children.
• Gergen points out that we must think in terms of
  continuum of historical durability
• Some phonomena are susceptible to historical
  changes, some not.
• Burr there is no ultimate truth
• Social Constructionists believe we should examine
  humans through discourse
• analysis rather than experiments. Analyse
  language and conversation to better

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• Non Scientific Approaches cont/
• Wetherall Potter discourse analysis on white
  New Zealanders. Interviews
• dealt with issue of teaching. Maori culture in
  schools found racist views in
• people who claimed not to be racist.
• Argued in favour of encouraging Maori culture,
  but emphasised togetherness
• and being in touch with modern world (New
  Zealanders values).
• Evaluation of SC
• Has some validity but considered exaggerated.
• Our beliefs colour own interpretations, but there
  is probably wide consensus when describing a
  situation, e.g. adult hiting a child.

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CONCLUSIONS

• It is hard to decide whether psychology should be
  regarded as a science.
• Some approaches have success in achieving
• 
  Prediction
• 
  Control
• 
  Understanding
• Many psychological theories fulfil falsifiability
  criterion.
• Many psychological experiments have been
  replicated successfully.
• But many theories in psychology are not precise
  enough to falsify and research is not replicable.
  
• Objectivity is psychology is hard to achieve
  because of experimenter bias which is determined
  by his/her social and cultural background.
• Laboratory experiments lack generalisability
  because carried out in artificial conditions.
• Kuhn would argue that it is a pre-science because
  it lacks a generally accepted paradigm.
• Funding for psychology was reduced because it was
  re-classified in the Thatcher era, from Social
  Science to Social Research.
• So psychology is not yet considered a fully
  fledged science BUT Cognitive Neuroscience.