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Chapter Nine

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Title: Chapter Nine


1
Chapter Nine
  • The Play Years
  • Cognitive Development

2
How Young Children Think Piaget and Vygotsky
  • PiagetSwiss developmentalist
  • believed young children were limited by their
    egocentric perspective
  • egocentrismPiagets term for type of centration
    in which child sees world solely from his/her
    personal perspective
  • VygotskyRussian developmentalist
  • recognized how childs social/cultural context
    helps shape his/her cognitive development

3
Piaget Preoperational Thought
  • Preoperational thoughtPiagets term for
    cognitive development between 2 and 6 years
  • characterized by centration, focus on appearance,
    static reasoning, and irreversibility

4
Obstacles to Logical Operations
  • Centrationtendency to focus on one aspect of a
    situation
  • Egocentrism or ego-centrationcontemplation of
    the world exclusively from childs personal
    perspective
  • empathy is an exception

5
Obstacles to Logical Operations, cont.
  • Focus on appearanceignores all attributes except
    appearance
  • Static reasoningassumes that the world is
    unchanging
  • Irreversibilityfails to recognize that reversing
    a process can sometimes restore whatever existed
    before transformation

6
Conservation and Logic
  • Thinking is intuitive rather than logical
  • Conservationprinciple that amount of substance
    is unaffected by changes in appearance
  • applied to liquids, numbers, matter, length
  • understanding develops after age 7, and then
    slowly and unevenly

7
Conservation and Logic, cont.
8
Vygotsky Children as Apprentices
  • One Theory
  • theory-theoryGopniks term for the idea that
    children attempt to construct a theory to explain
    everything they see and hear

9
Vygotsky Children as Apprentices, cont.
  • Children do not strive alone their efforts are
    embedded in social context
  • parents guide young childrens cognitive growth
    in many ways
  • present new challenges for learning
  • offer assistance and instruction
  • encourage interest and motivation

10
Vygotsky Children as Apprentices, cont.
  • Apprentice in thinkingchild whose intellectual
    growth is stimulated and directed by older and
    more skilled members of society
  • Guided participationprocess by which young
    children, with the help of mentors, learn to
    think by having social experiences and by
    exploring their universe

11
How to Solve a Puzzle
  • Guidance and motivation
  • structure task to make solution more attainable
  • provide motivation
  • Guided participation
  • partners (tutor and child) interact
  • tutor sensitive and responsive to needs of child
  • eventually, because of such mutuality, child able
    to succeed independently

12
Scaffolding
  • Scaffoldingsensitive structuring of childs
    participation in learning encounters
  • Zone of proximal development (ZPD) skills too
    difficult for child to perform alone but that can
    be performed with guidance and assistance of
    adults or more skilled children
  • lower limit of ZPD can be reached independently
  • upper limit of ZPD can be reached with assistance
  • ZPD is a measure of learning potential

13
Scaffolding, cont.
  • Private speechinternal dialogue when people talk
    to themselves through which new ideas are
    developed and reinforced
  • verbal interaction is a cognitive tool
  • Social mediationuse of speech to bridge gap
    between childs current understanding and what is
    almost understood

14
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15
Theory of Mind
  • We each have our own personal understanding of
    human mental processes, and child develops this
    too
  • complex interaction of human mental processes
  • emotions
  • thoughts
  • perceptions
  • actions

16
Emergence by Age 4
  • Social referencing
  • Sudden understanding that mental phenomena may
    not reflect reality
  • people can be deliberately deceived or fooled

17
Children develop ability (3 to 4 yrs.)
  • Distinguish between mental phenomena and physical
    events (thinking about something is different
    from experiencing it)
  • Appreciate how mental phenomena can arise from
    experiences (beliefs, desires arise from
    experiences)
  • Understand mental phenomena are subjective
    (others cant see your thoughts)
  • Recognize that people have differing opinions and
    beliefs
  • Realize beliefs and desires form basis for human
    action (person running to avoid being late for
    school)
  • Realize emotion arises not only from physical
    events but also from goals expectations

18
Contextual Influences on Theory of Mind
  • Brain maturation (prefrontal cortex)
  • General language ability
  • An older sibling
  • Culture that anticipates the future

19
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20
Language
  • Emergent literacyskills needed to learn to read
  • Is early childhood a sensitive or a critical
    period for language development?
  • ages 2 to 6 do seem to be a sensitive perioda
    time when a certain type of development (in this
    case, emergent literacy) occurs most rapidly

21
Number Skills
  • Number connection between numbers objects
    very tenuous in early years of symbolic thought
  • When counting, young preschoolers likely to
    delete numbers from sequence (1,2,4,8), count the
    same item more than once, or omit some items from
    the count
  • Mastering counting principles takes time
  • Stable-order principle
  • One-to-one principle
  • Cardinal principle
  • Counting improves progressively (2 1/2 year olds
    vs. 4 year olds)

22
How Number Skills Develop
  • Brain development that continues throughout
    childhood
  • Maturation of language, enabling preschoolers to
    conceptualize express number
  • Maturation in the sense emphasized by Piagetthe
    flowering of childs innate curiosity
    exploration of the world of objects
  • Cultural context specific family guidance
    (structure scaffolding) play role

23
Vocabulary
  • 2 to 6 olds learn average of 10 words per day
  • 2-year-olds vocabulary consists of 500 words
  • 6-year-olds vocabulary consists of 10,000 or
    more words
  • Fast mappingspeedy and not precise way a child
    assimilates new words by mentally charting them
    into interconnected categories
  • logical extension, or application of newly
    learned word to other unnamed objects in same
    category, closely related to fast mapping
    (Dalmatian cow)
  • fast mapping aided by the way adults label new
    things for children

24
Vocabulary, cont.
  • Fast mapping, cont.
  • children use basic assumptions about syntax and
    reference to fast map
  • children cannot comprehend every word they hear
  • difficulties may occur
  • words expressing comparisons (tall and short
    near and far high and low shallow and deep)
  • with words expressing relationships of time and
    place (here, there, yesterday, tomorrow)

25
Grammar
  • The grammar of a language includes the
    structures, techniques, and rules used to
    communicate meaning
  • Young children learn grammar so well they tend to
    apply its rules when they should not, a tendency
    called overregularization
  • examples plural nouns (foots), past tense
    (breaked the glass)

26
Learning Two Languages
  • Two points of view
  • bilingualism is an asset, even a necessity,
  • child should become proficient in own 1st
    language
  • How easy is it to be bilingual?
  • many 6-year-olds have difficulty pronouncing
    certain sounds
  • but auditory sensitivity helps young children
    master pronunciation over time, a much harder
    task if language learned after puberty

27
Learning Two Languages, cont.
  • Best solution children become balanced
    bilinguals, fluent in 2 languages
  • research confirms children can become equally
    fluent in 2 languages
  • easiest way for child to become bilingual is if
    parents speak 2 languages
  • ideally, each parent represents 1 language and
    helps child with mastery
  • sending child to preschool where 2nd language
    taught also effective

28
Early-Childhood Education
  • Controversy over whether, when, and where

29
Many Types of Programs
  • Distinct educational curricula have been
    developed
  • Maria Montessori (100 years ago) developed
    structured, individualized projects for poor
    children

30
Child-Centered and Readiness Programs
  • Many newer programs are child-centered or
    developmental
  • use a Piaget-inspired model that allows children
    to discover at their own pace
  • Alternative programs stress academic readiness
  • some readiness programs explicitly teach basic
    school skills

31
Reggio-Emilia
  • Reggio-Emiliaa new form of early-childhood
    education pioneered in the Italian city of that
    name
  • children encouraged to master skills not normally
    seen until age 7
  • artistic expression, exploration of the
    environment, and collaboration between parents
    and teachers encouraged

32
Reggio Emilia, cont.
  • Early childhood is the prime learning period for
    every child and some learn even more
  • The above has led to conclusion nations should
    provide quality early education
  • Head Start
  • has provided half-day education for millions of 3
    to 5 year olds, boosting abilities and skills, at
    least temporarily and probably for longer

33
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34
Quality Learning
  • Three research projects have shown excellent
    longitudinal data
  • High/Scope (Michigan)
  • Abecedarian (North Carolina)
  • Child-Parent Centers (Chicago)
  • Children in these programs have scored higher on
    math and reading achievement tests than other
    children from same backgrounds, schools, and
    neighborhoods

35
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36
Quality Learning, cont.
  • High-quality early education is associated with
    positive outcomes for all children
  • what is high-quality education?
  • safety, adequate space, and equipment
  • low adult-to-child ratio
  • trained staff
  • curriculum geared to cognitive development
  • learning includes creative/constructive play
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