SOSC 102U

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SOSC 102U

• Lecture Note 4
• Sex Inequality in Modern Workplace

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Sex Inequality in Modern Workplace

• Sex Segregation
• Sex Differences in Promotions and Authority
• Sex Differences in Earnings

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Explanations for Sex Inequality in the Workplace

• Explanation 1 Gender Ideology and Inequality at
  Work
• Explanation 2 Mens Efforts to Preserve Their
  Advantages in the Workplace
• Explanation 3 Employers Actions
• Explanation 4 Sex Differences in Workers
  Preferences and Productivity

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Explanations for Sex Inequality in the Workplace
1 Gender Ideology

• Gender Ideology a set of widely shared
  assumptions about the way the sexes are and what
  the relations between them are and ought to be
• Two related concepts sex norms and sex
  stereotypes
• Sex stereotypes i. e., women are emotional,
  irrational, moody, sensitive, etc. Men are
  assertive, rational, determined, etc.
• Sex norms the ideas that sexes differ in
  appearance, talents, interests, etc. People of
  different sexes should be separated. I. e., Women
  are caregivers and men are breadwinners.
• The consequences Separate women from mens
  fields (the most extreme cases are construction,
  mining, railroads, etc.)

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Explanation 1 Gender Ideology

• Consequences of the ideology of men as the
  breadwinners, women the housewives (men for paid
  jobs and women for unpaid domestic work)
• 1. Employers organized jobs on the assumption
  that workers had a woman at home who took care of
  them when they were away from home, fed them,
  washed their clothes, gave them emotional
  support, helped their careers, and dealt with
  family problems
• 2. The assumption implies that employed women are
  temporary workers who will quit when they are
  needed at home or can afford to stay home. Hence,
  employers do not need to accommodate womens
  needs as primary family caregivers.
• 3. It assumes that employed women are not
  committed to their careers. Hence, employers do
  not need to provide promotion opportunities for
  women and should not assign them to positions
  where turnover might be a problem.

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Gender Ideology

• An assumption on male superiority Paternalism
  (relationship between dominants and subordinates
  modeled on the father-child relationship in which
  members of a dominant group treat members of a
  subordinate group as if they need protection or
  guidance)
• Paternalism and gender inequality the notion
  that women, like children, are inferior creatures
  whom men must take care of
• Example the protective labor laws supervision
  of female workers life

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Gender Ideology

• Sex Stereotypes socially shared beliefs that
  link various traits, attributes, and skills with
  one sex or the otherare part of gender ideology
• Where do they come from? overlearned images,
  based on habitual and automatic association
  between one sex with certain characteristics
• Explanations of stereotypes Race, sex, and the
  dismal science

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Gender Ideology

• Sex labeling of jobs
• Sex labels link some occupations (e. g., nurse)
  with women and others (e. g., plumber) with men.
  The sex labeling influences both employers and
  workers.
• Assertive men assertive car sellers male car
  seller
• Consequences women might lose some job
  opportunities because the employers assume that
  they may not be interested in.

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Explanation 2 Reservation of the Dominant Group

• How does the sex inequality in the workplace
  sustain?
• The dominant groups vs. subordinate groups (Those
  who set up the rules vs. those who have to follow
  the rules)
• When a occupation with predominant female
  workers, the prestige of the occupation would
  decline (the social-wide devaluation of womens
  work)men therefore try to exclude women from
  certain jobs that are mostly mens jobs
• If women could achieve equality at work, mens
  privileges in family, community, and national
  political life would be undermined.
• Many men-dominated jobs set up entry barriers to
  prohibit the participation of women

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Explanation 3 Employers Action

• Reproduction of sex inequality at workplace
  through the hiring process
• Some employers choose to rely on workers
  referrals, and this tends to perpetuate
  inequality. Why? Workers may deliver their sexist
  bias to influence the recruitment process
• Employers work assignment may also lead to sex
  inequality the requirement of certain
  experiences to certain positions
• Discrimination at workplace treat people
  unequally because of personal characteristics
  that are not related to their performance
• Anti-discrimination law in the U. S. Title 7 of
  the 1964 Civil Rights At and its amendments and
  the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
  (EEOC) takes in charge of handling grievances
• Anti-discrimination institution in Hong Kong the
  Equal Opportunities Commission (founded in 1996)

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Employers Action

• Sexual harassment
• 1) quid pro quo (supervisors demand sexual acts)
• 2) hostile work environment such as sexual
  intimidation, touching, verbal abuse, or displays
  of offensive literature that make a worker
  uncomfortable
• Policy on sexual harassment of the HKUST
• In most cases, women are victims of sexual
  harassment (only one of the 7 cases is males
  being harassed).
• These harassments are more damaging to women than
  to men Among those being harassed, women are at
  nine times more likely to quit a job, five times
  more likely to transfer, and three times more
  likely to lose a job.

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Employers Action

• Statistical Discrimination women are less
  productive
• E. g. the idea that motherhood will cause women
  to miss more work than men or will lead to higher
  turnover rates. But to be sure, not all women
  need maternity leave. Moreover, motherhood
  contributes to the overall social reproduction
  but not only womens thing.
• Customers and Male Workers Attitudes employers
  discriminate against men or women out of
  deference to the prejudices of their customers or
  workers. Can customers discriminatory preferences
  justify sex discrimination? It is illegal but it
  is still practiced.
• E. g. Men have fewer chances to be flight
  attendants (1), (2) Women have fewer chances to
  serve in the police force or become military
  officers.

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Explanation 4 Sex Differences in Workers
Preferences and Productivity

• Explanations of sex inequality at workplace from
  womens motivations
• Women choose customarily female jobs, do not want
  promotions, and willing accept lower wages. Women
  do not pursue career-oriented success as men do.
• 1. Human-Capital Theory labor markets operate in
  a nondiscriminatory fashion, rewarding workers
  for their productivity. Thus, if women are worse
  off than men, it is because they are less
  productive workers. Because women are more
  family-oriented but not career-oriented, they are
  less productive than men.
• Indicators of human-capital the skills,
  experience, and job commitment. Men in general
  receive more career-related schooling, job
  training, and experiences.

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Sex Differences in Workers Preferences and
Productivity

• 2. Gender-role Socialization the process by
  which social institutions, including families,
  peers, schools, workplaces, and the
  mediainculcate a societys expectations of
  acceptable dress, speech, personality, leisure
  activities, and aspirations for each sex
• 1) women are socialized into more family-oriented
  and men more career-oriented
• 2) socialization may contribute to a tendency for
  men and women to hold different values that
  affect their work lives (such as the value on
  authority, prestige, and money)

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Assessment of the above two approaches

• Should we take human-capital theory seriously?
• In recent decades, womens education and
  career-related training increase dramatically,
  the sex inequality does not change accordingly.
• The approach cannot explain why men and women
  have different motivations.

• Should we take gender-role socialization
  seriously?
• Not only because women are family-oriented, but
  family demands them to be so.
• The current trend is that both men and women are
  family-oriented.
• Women also become career-oriented.