C83SPE: Social Psychology of Exercise and Sport

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C83SPE Social Psychology of Exercise and Sport
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Aims

• This course aims examine the social psychological
  approaches to the understanding of sport,
  exercise and health-related behaviour.
• Two broad areas
• Social psychology of exercise
• Social psychology of sport

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Aims

• Identify the major social psychological
  approaches to understanding exercise behaviour
• Identify and evaluate the effectiveness of the
  important exercise intervention strategies used
  by social psychologists
• Identify the major approaches to social
  psychological processes in sport 
• Critically analyse the published research on
  social psychology applied to sport 

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Lectures and Tutorials/Labs

• Lectures are Fridays 2pm-4pm in the first
  semester in Pope C17
• No lecture 31st October 2008
• Compulsory attendance

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Information

• EMAIL
• Forum for Q A between students and lecturer
• martin.hagger_at_nottingham.ac.uk
• Prompt responses to queries
• C83SPE Resources on my Website
• All lecture notes posted here
• Some key websites
• Specimen exam papers
• www.martinhagger.com

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Course Textbook

• Hagger, M.S. and Chatzisarantis, N. (2005). The
  social psychology of exercise and sport.
  Buckingham Open University Press. (RRP 20)

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Assessment

• Written examination in Summer Term (end of second
  semester)
• You will be required to answer 2 essay questions
  in 2 hours
• 1 from a choice of 3 in Section A Social
  Psychology of Exercise
• 1 from a choice of 3 in Section B Social
  Psychology of Sport

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Stupid Question Policy

• Please email me if you have a query about the
  module (martin.hagger_at_nottingham.ac.uk)
• I am more than happy to answer relevant questions
  about matters of which you are unsure
• I will not respond to stupid questions
• Examples of stupid questions

• Where is Pope C17?
• I missed the last lecture, where can I get the
  handout?
• Im looking for past exam papers, where can I
  find them?
• I have a new pet hamster, what shall I name it?

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Social Psychology, Exercise and HealthHagger
Chatzisarantis, Chapter 1
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Outline

• The problem of physical inactivity
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
• Causes of CVD
• Benefits of exercise/physical activity
• Low fitness/physical activity endemic in
  populations
• Prevalence of obesity
• Relationship between exercise and health
• Exercise guidelines and recommendations
• Role of social psychology

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Cardiovascular Disease - The Problem

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the second most
  commonly reported chronic illness in Britain
• What is CVD?
• Myocardial Infarction (aka CHD, heart attack)
• Angina
• Stroke
• Peripheral Vascular Disease (c.f. DVT)
• Prevalence of CHD in England is 7.4 (men) and
  4.5 (women)
• Prevalence rates increase with age, with around 1
  in 4 men and 1 in 5 women aged gt75 years living
  with CHD.
• 1.5 million men in the UK have CHD and about 1.1
  million women, total of around 2.6 million people

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The Cost in the UK

• Treating CVD in the NHS costs the government 5.2
  billion per year
• Costs of treating the problem itself e.g., bypass
  surgery, drug treatments, rehabilitation
• Source Allender et al. (2006). Journal of
  Epidemiology and Community Health.

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A Further Problem...

• CVD and other diseases related to low levels of
  activity are perceived to be pathological
  occurring over the passage of time rather than
  linked with behavioural problems

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What Causes CVD?

• Principle risk factors
• Hypercholesterolaemia
• Hypertension
• Smoking
• Hereditary Tendency
• Associated risk factors
• Obesity - Interactive
• Physical Inactivity - Interactive

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Effects of Physical Activity on CVD

• Physical inactivity is acknowledged as major risk
  factor for CVD in UK (Lee and Skerrett, 2001)
• Physical activity has been shown to ameliorate
  levels of the CVD risk factors
• ? hypertension (Hagberg Seals, 1985)
• ? blood lipoproteins (Raitakari et al., 2001)
• ? obesity (Ross et al., 2000)

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Physical Activity and Disease

• In addition to its effects on CVD
• Physical activity has a positive benefits on
• skeletal health (Branca, 1999)
• psychological health, e.g.
• positive affect (Mihalko et al., 1996)
• self-esteem (Fox, 2000)
• psychological well-being (Biddle et al., 2000)
• reduction in depression, neurotics (Faulkner
  Biddle, 2004)

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Low Physical Activity and Other Diseases

• Low levels of physical activity can increase the
  risk of certain cancers
• Inactive lifestyles account for 5 of all cancer
  deaths (Colditz et al., 1997)
• Studies in Italy and the USA estimated that
  physical inactivity could cause 13-14 of all
  bowel cancer cases (La Veccia et al., 1999) and
  11 of breast (Mezzetti et al., 1999) cases.
• It is estimated that diseases caused by
  inactivity kill 2M people every year worldwide
  (Ezzati et al., 2002).

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And Now the Bad News

• People in the UK do not participate in enough
  physical activity of the type, intensity and
  frequency of physical activity thought to provide
  health benefits
• Biddle, Cavill Sallis (1999)
• 7 out of 10 adults in the UK do not take enough
  regular physical activity
• BHF (2006)

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Physical Activity Levels in England
Source Department of Health (2005) and Health
Survey for England (2004)
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Physical Inactivity in the EU
"I do not participate in any physical activity /
exercise"
Source Pan-EU survey on consumer attitudes to
physical activity, body weight and health
21
Physical Inactivity in the US
No reported leisure-time physical
activity, adults 18 and older
Source CDC, Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance
System (BRFSS)
22
The Fitness of the Nation
At 3mph on the level
At 3mph up a 5 gradient

• Source Allied Dunbar National Fitness Survey
  (ADNFS 1995)

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The Fitness of the Nation
At 3mph on the level
At 3mph up a 5 gradient

• Source Allied Dunbar National Fitness Survey
  (ADNFS 1995)

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Obesity A Further Health Risk

• What is obesity?
• Defined as a Body Mass Index (BMI) of gt30
• Calculation for BMI weight (kg)/height (m)2
• In addition, a BMI between 25 and 29.9 is
  considered overweight
• Associated with heightened risks of CV disease,
  certain cancers, diabetes and associated with
  back and joint problems and increased risk in
  surgery

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Obesity Among Adults in the EU
EU Averages Overweight 31 Obesity 10
Source Pan-EU survey on consumer attitudes to
physical activity, body weight and health
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1985
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1986
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1987
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1988
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1989
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1990
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1991
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1992
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1993
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1994
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1995
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1996
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1997
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1998
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.1999
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.2000
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.2001
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Obesity Among Adults in the U.S.2004-2006
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The Costs of Obesity in the US

• Obesity is responsible for 100bn (55bn) in
  medical costs and 300,000 deaths annually
• Throughout the 1990s, the average weight of North
  Americans increased by 4.5kg (10lb)
• The extra weight meant airlines burnt 350m more
  gallons of fuel in 2000, costing an extra 157m

Source American Obesity Association (2004)
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Obesity in the UK An Epidemic

• Obesity is rising throughout the world and
  affects at least 300 million people worldwide
• In the UK, two-thirds of adults are overweight
  and 22 of men and 23 of women are obese
• The level of obesity has tripled in the past 20
  years
• More than 12m adults will be obese by 2010
• 33 of men and 28 of women will be obese by 2010
  
• Source Health Survey for England (2006)

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Obesity in the UK An Epidemic
No. of People Aged 16 (000s)
Source National Centre for Social
Research/ Department for Health (2006)
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Percentage of Obese Men by Age Group
Source Health Survey for England (2003)
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Percentage of Obese Women by Age Group
Source Health Survey for England (2003)
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Exercise Recommendations and Guidelines

• ACSM GUIDELINES
• for healthy aerobic activity ...
• Exercise 3 to 5 days each week
• Up to 30 to 45 minutes at a time
• Moderately intense activity using large muscle
  groups (e.g. walking, swimming, cycling, running)
• This level of activity corresponds to 200
  kcals/day
• The level of intensity should be at least 55 to
  65 of maximum heart rate
• American College of Sports Medicine Position
  Stand (1998). Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30(6),
  975-991.
• )

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Physical Activity Targets for the United Kingdom
in Adults

• ENGLAND
• 70 of individuals to be undertaking 30 minutes
  of physical activity on at least 5 days a week by
  2020
• An interim target of 50 of individuals by 2011
• SCOTLAND
• To increase the proportion of all adults aged
  over 16 years taking the minimum recommended
  levels of physical activity (30 minutes of
  moderate activity on 5 or more occasions each
  week) to 50 by 2022
• To meet this goal will need average increases of
  1 a year across the population

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Pediatric Origins of CVD

• Evidence has suggested that CVD and risk factors
  have paediatric origins (e.g., Enos et al., 1953
  McNamara et al., 1971)
• Evidence also shows that obesity is increasing
  in children and children do less exercise than
  ever before (Ebbling et al., 2002Flegal, 1999)
• Physical activity levels in young people and
  children are not enough to confer health benefits
  (Cale Almond, 1992)

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Obesity in the UK An Epidemic in Children

• Obesity is rising among British children
• In the past 10 years obesity has doubled in
  six-year-olds (to 8.5) and trebled among
  15-year-olds (to 15)
• More than 1m children will be obese by 2010
• 19 of boys and 22 of girls aged 2- 15 will be
  obese
• Source Health Survey for England (2006)

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Obesity in the UK An Epidemic in Children
Number of Children aged 2-15 years
Source National Centre for Social
Research/ Department for Health (2006)
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Exercise Recommendations and Guidelines for Young
People

• International Consensus Conference on Physical
  Activity Guidelines for Adolescents
• Adolescents should be active daily or nearly
  ever day as part of their lifestyles
• Exercise most days each week for 20 continuous
  minutes at a time
• Moderately-to-vigorous physical activity using
  large muscle groups (e.g. walking, swimming,
  cycling, running)
• Intensity of 65 of maximum heart rate
• Sallis and Patrick (1994) Pediatric Exercise
  Science, 6 (4), 302-314.
• )

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Physical Activity Targets for the United Kingdom
in Children

• ENGLAND
• To increase the proportion of school children in
  England who spend a minimum of two hours each
  week on high quality sport from 25 in 2002, to
  75 by 2006 and 85 per cent in 2008
• SCOTLAND
• To increase the proportion of all children aged
  16 and under taking the minimum recommended
  levels of physical activity (1 hour a day of
  moderate activity on 5 or more days a week) to
  80 by 2022
• To meet this goal will need average increases of
  1 a year across the population

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Role of Exercise Psychology

• Exercise psychologists aim to
• (1) identify the influential variables
  (antecedents) that predict physical activity
  behaviour and
• (2) develop a strategy to manipulate such
  variables and bring about a behaviour change in
  levels of physical activity.
• Social psychological approaches adopted for use
  in exercise contexts

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What is Social Psychology?

• The study of human behaviour in social contexts
• Recognises that behaviour does not occur in a
  social vacuum
• Most of the research in exercise and sport
  psychology is applied social psychology
• Theoretical explanations which can explain social
  psychological phenomena in exercise and sport
  across a number of situations
• Adopts a hypothesis-testing, empirical approach
  to understanding behaviour
• AKA The positivist or scientific approach
• Constructs identified and mechanisms studied
  using experimental and quantitative research
  designs

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Types of Constructs or Variables in Social
Psychology
CONTINUUM
TRAIT
STATE
Trait-like
State-like
Situation specific
General, Global
LEVEL OF GENERALITY
Stable, Enduring Not subject to change
Less-stable, Changeable
STABILITY
Self-Efficacy, Intentions, State Anxiety
Personality, Trait Anxiety, Goal Orientation
CONSTRUCT
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Types of Constructs or Variables in Social
Psychology

• Traits indicate a tendency or general
  disposition across many contexts
• States account for situational behaviour and
  outcomes
• Information-processing perspective

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Research Designs I The Survey

• Large body of research in exercise and social
  psychology use cross-sectional, correlational
  surveys
• Examining sets of relationships between
  psychological variables and exercise behaviour
• Advantages
• Large samples
• Valid measures, powerful effects
• Generalizable to populations
• Relatively easy to conduct
• Disadvantages
• Validity of measures (behavioural AND
  psychological)
• Inference of causality

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Research Designs II The Experiment

• Experimental data used occasionally in exercise
  and social psychology
• Careful manipulation of social psychological
  variables (usually field experiments) and
  behaviour
• Advantages
• Inference of causality
• Gives precise idea on mechanisms
• Disadvantages
• May lack ecological validity
• Difficult to design in exercise contexts

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Research Designs III The Intervention

• Effects of numerous manipulations on exercise
  behaviour wholesale changes
• In real world settings
• Focus on practice and implementation
• Advantages
• Valid in settings in the real world
• Can infer causality
• Disadvantages
• May be unable to disentangle the true effect
• Effects may be small
• Data may be noisy
• Need careful design e.g. randomisation

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Processes in Social Psychology

• An initial example the 3rd variable problem

Attendance
.60
.60
?
Socioeconomic status
Academic attainment
.50
.14
Explains relationship
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Processes in Exercise Psychology

• Mediation relationships in correlational data

Psychological variable
.25
.60
.45
Psychological variable
Exercise Behaviour
.60
Psychological variable
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Processes in Exercise Psychology

• Moderation effects

Perceived Competence
Changes nature of the relationship
Intrinsic motivation
Exercise Behaviour
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Processes in Exercise Psychology

• Moderation effects

High competence people

Intrinsic motivation
Exercise Behaviour
Low competence people
Intrinsic motivation
Exercise Behaviour