OPERANT CONDITIONING

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OPERANT CONDITIONING

• Traditional Learning
• Learning based on operating on the environment.

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Operant Conditioning

• Learning based on
• Stimulus gt Response gt Consequence

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Responses in Operant Conditioning

• Response are external
• Responses are active
• Responses are goal oriented
• Responses are purposeful
• Responses are voluntary
• Responses operate on the environment
• Responses are made to gain a reward or avoid
  punishment
• Responses are initially brand new to the learner
  and must be learned

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Early Work on Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner used rats and pigeons in a specially
  designed Skinner Box where the animals could
  learn to press a bar or peck a disk for food.
• Thorndike developed the Law of Effect.
• Consequences predict future responses.

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Thorndikes Law of Effect

• If you do something (make a response) and the
  consequence is good, youre likely to make that
  response again.
• If you do something (make a response) and the
  consequence is bad, youre less likely to do it
  again.

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Skinners Box

• Stimulus Bar to press for food
• Response To press the bar
• Consequence Pellet of food

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Acquiring Operantly Conditioned Responses

• Learner must initially be taught to make the new,
  external, voluntary, goal-oriented response.
• Learner will have to be focused on the
  consequence.
• Learner will have to be active.
• Both simple and complex responses can be learned
  through operant conditioning.

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Response AcquisitionLearning a New Response

• Unique to operant conditioning because
  classically conditioned responses involve
  involuntary and inborn responses
• Steps for teaching a learner a new response
• Wait for response to occur coincidentally
• Increase the learners motivation
• Limit other possible actions
• Use Shaping rewarding successive approximations
  to the behavior you
  are attempting to shape.

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Superstitious Behavior

• Misunderstanding which response is leading to a
  consequence
• Skinners pigeons misunderstanding
• Turning in a circle and pecking disk gets a
  pellet of food.
• Turning is circle is not necessary, only pecking
  the disk
• Sport figures misunderstanding
• They must follow a certain ritual to perform well
  in a game.

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Extinction

• To eliminate an operantly conditioned response
• Eliminate the consequence
• Unique phenomena of extinction in operant
  conditioning
• Behavior/Response increases before it decreases

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Generalization

• Applying what you have learned to stimuli other
  than the one you learned on.
• Examples
• You can tell time on a clock other than the one
  you learned on.
• You can drive a car you have never driven.
• Generalization allows us to apply what we learn
  and interact easily with the environment.

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Discrimination

• Making a specific response to a particular
  stimulus.
• Examples
• Putting a key in a door and turning the key and
  knob to get in, but remembering that this
  particular door sticks, so you must force it open
  with a shove.
• Discriminating how to start a particular car
  when that car has an anti-theft device (e.g., you
  must turn on the lights before turning on the car)

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Discriminative Stimulus

• A stimulus that tells us
• If a certain response will have the consequence
  we expect
• When a certain response is likely to have the
  consequence we expect
• Which response we should make to get the response
  we want

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Discriminative Stimulus

• Unique to operant conditioning because it helps
  the learner decide which response to make.
• In classical conditioning the learner doesnt
  think about his/her responses they are
  involuntary.
• Examples
• Light in the Skinner box tells the rat when to
  press the bar for food. Light off no reward
  for response.
• Out of order sign tells you to put your money
  in a vending machine, because you will not get
  the consequence you want.
• Traffic sign or signal tells us to stop or go in
  order to get through the intersection safely.

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Reinforcement

• Any consequence that increases a response in the
  future.

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Primary Secondary Reinforcement

• Primary
• In of itself reinforcing
• Examples
• Attention
• Fulfillment of a Drive

• Secondary
• Used to get a more primary reinforcer
• Examples
• Money

Academic Grades Primary or Secondary? Answer
Secondary - used to get something more primary
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Schedules of Reinforcement

• So far we have assumed that we are reinforcing
  our learner for every response s/he makes. This
  is called continuous reinforcement.
• We can also reinforce our learner for only some
  responses. This is called partial reinforcement.

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Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement

• The partial schedule we choose to use to
  reinforce our learner may be based on the number
  of responses the learner makes.
• This is calles a ratio schedule of reinforcement.
• Example
• We give a rat a pellet every time s/he presses
  the bar 5 times.

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Interval Schedules of Reinforcement

• The partial schedule we choose to use to
  reinforce our learner may require our learner to
  make one response within a certain period of
  time.
• This is call an interval schedule of
  reinforcement.
• Example
• We give a rat a pellet for pressing the bar once
  within each 2 minute interval.

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Fixed and Variable Schedules

• Whether we are using a ratio or interval schedule
  to reinforce our learner, we can apply the
  schedule in a fixed or variable pattern.
• In a fixed schedule the ratio or interval always
  stays the same.
• In a varied schedule the ratio or interval varies
  for each learning trial.

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Examples of the Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio
• The reinforcement will be given for every set
  number of responses, and that number will stay
  the same for each trial.
• Example
• Getting paid by the unit
• You are given a bonus for every 3 health club
  memberships you sell.

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More about Fixed Ratio Schedules

• These schedules tend to make the learner have a
  high response rate and feel in control or their
  reinforcements.
• The learner knows that the harder s/he works, the
  more reinforcements s/he will get.
• Reinforcement is based on the learners
  performance.

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Examples of the Schedules of Reinforcement

• Variable Ratio
• The reinforcement will be given based on the
  number of responses, but the number of responses
  needed to get a reinforcer will change with each
  trial.
• Examples
• Gambling on a slot machine.
• You win more for making more responses (putting
  more coins into the machine increases your
  chances of winning), but you dont know how many
  quarters will be required before you win.
• Selling real estate by commission
• The more properties you show, the great your
  chances of making a sale

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More about Variable Ratio Schedules

• These schedules tend to make the learner have the
  highest response rate of any other schedule.
• The learner knows that the harder s/he works, the
  more reinforcements s/he will get.
• Reinforcement is based on the learners
  performance, but some responses are reinforced
  while others are not.

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Examples of the Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Interval
• The reinforcement will be given for making one
  response (or minimal response) within a set
  period of time.
• Examples
• Getting paid by the hour, week, month or year.
• You get paid for each hour of work, as long as
  you are making at least a minimal effort to work.

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More about Fixed Interval Schedules

• These schedules produce the lowest response rate
  of all the schedules.
• The learner knows that working harder will not
  lead to more reinforcement - so why work hard?
• Reinforcement does not come faster when the
  learner works faster.
• Reinforcement does not increase when the learner
  works harder.

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Examples of the Schedules of Reinforcement

• Variable Interval
• The reinforcement will be given for making a
  minimal response within a varying period of time.
• Examples
• Studying for a pop quiz.
• You do not know when the quiz is coming, but you
  know to study for it so that you can be ready
  when it does come.

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More about Variable Interval Schedules

• The learner knows that working harder will not
  lead to more reinforcement - so why work hard?
• Reinforcement does not come faster when the
  learner works faster, and does not increase when
  the learner works harder.
• Why press an elevator button more than once when
  pressing it more (response) will not make the
  elevator arrive faster (consequence)?
• Learner does learn to make the response right
  after receiving a consequence to let the teacher
  know, Im ready for another reinforcer as soon
  as you can give it.

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Determining the Effectiveness of the Schedules of
Reinforcement

• Both ratio schedules are more effective (produce
  more responses from the learner) than either
  interval schedule.
• Variable schedules are more effective than fixed
  schedules
• Most effective schedules variable ratio, then
  fixed ratio
• Least effective schedule is the fixed interval

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Punishment

• Any consequences that eliminates or decreases
  responses in the future.

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Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of
Punishment

• Timing
• Punishment should be given immediately following
  the response to be eliminated
• Intensity
• Punishment should be intense something the
  learner really dislikes
• Consistency
• Punishment should be given each time a response
  is made

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Undesirable Effects of Punishment

• Primarily motivates learner to avoid punishment
• Behavior is suppressed, but not eliminated
• Learner does not unlearn the response
• No alternative behavior is learned
• May cause anger and aggression in learner
• May cause learner to stop making attempts to
  perform well

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Two Types of LearningBased on Punishment

• Escape Learning
• Learning to make a response that allows you to
  escape from a punishment that has already begun.
• Stimulus (punishment)gt Response gt
  Consequence (punishment stops)
• Example
• Dog learns to jump partition in cage to get away
  from electric shock.

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Two Types of LearningBased on Punishment

• Avoidance Learning
• Learning to make a response that allows you to
  avoid being punished.
• Stimulus (signal of punishment)gt Response gt
  Consequence (punishment avoided)
• Example
• Dog learns to jump partition in cage when it
  hears a bell. This allows the dog to avoid an
  electric shock that will soon follow the bell.

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Positive Negative Reinforcement Punishment
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Positive vs. Negative

• In learning, positive means adding something or
  giving something
• In learning, negative means taking something away
  or removing something

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Definitions Revisited

• Following a response,
• Reinforcement increases the response in the
  future
• Punishment decreases the response in the future

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Positive Reinforcement

• A consequence that gives or adds something to a
  situation in order to make the response it
  followed likely to increase in the future.
• The learner makes a response, and something is
  given so they will tend to repeat that response.
• Examples
• Giving praise
• Giving a reward

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Negative Reinforcement

• A consequence that takes away something from a
  situation in order to make the response it
  followed likely to increase in the future.
• The learner makes a response, and something is
  taken away so they will tend to repeat that
  response.
• Examples
• Lifting a restriction you may play after you do
  your homework
• As are exempt from the final if study hard
  enough to keep an A average, the final will be
  removed

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Positive Punishment

• A consequence that gives or adds something to a
  situation in order to make the response it
  followed likely to decrease in the future.
• The learner makes a response, and something is
  given so they will not tend to repeat that
  response.
• Examples
• A fine is imposed
• A spanking is given

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Negative Punishment

• A consequence that takes away something from a
  situation in order to make the response it
  followed likely to decrease in the future.
• The learner makes a response, and something is
  taken away so they will not tend to repeat that
  response.
• Examples
• Taking away a privilege
• Grounding a child from an activity they enjoy

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Summary of Operant Conditioning

• Responses learned are external, voluntary and
  goal-oriented
• Learner learns to make a brand new response.
• Association is made between a response and its
  consequence.
• Consequences are either reinforcing or punishing
• Reinforcement increases a response
• Punishment decreases a response
• Learner is active and focused on the consequence.
• Law of effect consequences received can predict
  which responses will be made in the future.

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Applications of Classical Operant Conditioning

• Token Economy
• A secondary reinforcer (a token) is given for
  good behavior. Learner turns the token in for
  something more primary.
• Based on operant conditioning.

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Applications of Classical Operant Conditioning

• Time Out (from positive reinforcement)
• When a learner misbehaves, his/her positive
  reinforcement is removed.
• Must have been giving positive reinforcement, so
  that you can remove it when the learner
  misbehaves.
• Based on operant conditioning.

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Applications of Classical Operant Conditioning

• Flooding (Exposure)
• Used to remove fears
• The learner is flooded with whatever they fear
• Based on classical conditioning because the
  responses being dealt with (fear or calm) are
  involuntary

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Applications of Classical Operant Conditioning

• Systematic Desensitization
• Used to remove fears
• A stimulus that causes fear is paired with
  relaxation
• Learner makes a hierarchy of steps involved in
  the fear
• Each step of the hierarchy is paired with
  relaxation, first cognitively (covert
  desensitization), and then in real life (in vivo)
• Based on classical conditioning because the
  response being dealt with (fear or calm) are
  involuntary

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Cognitive Learning

• Latent Learning Tolman
• Hidden learning
• We can know how to do something, yet not show
  that we know it (not make the response)
• Observational Learning Bandura
• Learning from others consequences
• Also called modeling or vicarious learning