Inequality and Poverty

1
Inequality and Poverty

• Levels, again
• How much mobility?
• Inequality and social policy

2
Levels What question is one asking?

• To what extent do people have equal opportunity
  is largely a question at the macro-level about
  social structural constraints and rates
• To what extent do people have any opportunities
  is largely a question at the micro level about
  individual choices.
• E.g. the question whether October Sky ever
  happens is different from the question whether it
  is as likely in a poor community in Appalachia,
  or in Mantua, as on the Main Line.
• Or half as likely, or a tenth as likely, or a
  hundredth.
• That people make their choices under constraints
  means that there are grossly different college
  chances in East LA and in 90210

3
Is there enough mobility so that it does not make
sense to speak of a vicious cycle?

• In the 1950s and 60s Status Attainment
  research (e.g. Hout and others p.346-50) argues
  that
• The effects of family background on education,
  occupation and income were substantial, but
• There is still enough mobility so that we do not
  have to talk of a vicious cycle.
• However, in the last 20 years, most sociologists
  have pointed out that
• Status attainment research looked at effects for
  white males not living in poverty less than 1/3
  of the work force.
• It confused structural and circulation mobility
• It treated pseudo-mobility as real, and
  longitudinal designs find rates of mobility less
  than half as large.
• The vicious cycle is real.

4
Limitations on mobility rates

• The question of equal opportunities is not
  whether people have some opportunities and make
  choices.
• Whether people are treated the same at age 20 is
  not the main structural issue about equal
  opportunity.
• Inequality of opportunity usually means that
  different people and different groups do not get
  the same skills, contacts, job histories,
  motivations or self-presentation prior to age 20.
  Different constraints lead to different rates and
  different choices.
• Thus, equal opportunities may involve things such
  as lead paint, food, ear exams, eyeglasses,
  housing, reading programs, etc. at age 10
• The US does a terrible job at such issues,
  compared to other advanced industrial societies

5
The example of 187, again

• Some kids are making bad, immoral choices.
• All the students are multiply disadvantaged such
  that
• No one in the school is competitive with students
  from 90210
• Some of these effects are direct ones of school
  funding, etc.
• Others are effects of not dealing with problems
  in the community
• Others are indirect effects (e.g. role models,
  expectations, teacher flight.
• All are affected by social policy, or by the
  absence of social policy.

6
The example of The Code of the Streets, again

• People make choices, both in Chestnut Hill and in
  North Philadelphia.
• The different rates of choices are the result of
  different environments.
• We can choose to do something, or not to do
  something about those differences.
• To ascribe the differences to individual choices
  is usually a way of justifying the failure to do
  anything about it.

7
The example of The Saints and the Roughnecks,
again

• Teachers, merchants, judges, employers, etc.
  really, sincerely believe that they are treating
  people the same,
• and that the saints are making good choices,
  while the roughnecks are making bad choices,
• and that people should take the consequences of
  their choices.
• But the reality is that a biased educational,
  criminal justice, and social system is
  stigmatizing poor kids in a way that reinforces
  disadvantage.

8
But even if that is true, isnt it demoralizing
to say it?

• People always have choices.
• It may be important to stress to any student that
  he or she can do well, can stay off drugs, can
  succeed
• (at the individual level of analysis).
• The grossly different life chances of different
  groups gives a different message
• (at the social level of analysis.)

9
What is the policy issue?

• One of the reasons that it is important to look
  at constraints is that the policy issues usually
  concern whether there is equal opportunity, not
  whether there is any opportunity.
• That some people overcome disadvantages is not
  relevant to whether they are disadvantaged.
• The persistence of socially remediable
  inequalities of opportunity is arguably
• Unjust
• a source of structural strain and
• Dysfunctional a social waste

10
Anticipation the army and Colin Powell

• The army and the navy followed different policies
  
• The army found huge racial disproportions at
  different levels.
• It argued that the disproportions resulted from
  unequal opportunities and set up compensatory
  educational programs.
• That have produced the single largest fully
  integrated institution in the society.

11
Survey questions

1. Only if differences in income and social standing
   are large enough is there an incentive for
   individual effort.
2. In the United States, there are still great
   differences between social levels, and what one
   can achieve in life depends mainly upon ones
   family background.
3. Personal income should not be determined solely
   by ones work. Rather, everybody should get what
   he/she needs to provide a decent life for his/her
   family
4. In a free society it is alright if a few people
   accumulate a lot of wealth and property while
   many others live in poverty.
5. The country has many problems, none of which can
   be solved easily or cheaply. At the moment, do
   you think the federal government is spending too
   much, about the right amount or too little on
6. Welfare
7. Assistance to the poor.

12
A Simplistic theory

• Disadvantaged persons and groups will adopt a
  functional model of inequality.
• Advantaged persons and groups will adopt a
  conflict model of inequality.
• It is largely true, but
• there are many other forces operating on each
  respondent and with regard to each attitude.

13
Insight of functional theory

• We might want or need some kinds of inequality
  to the degree that the inequality serves crucial
  social functions.
• For example it could reward people for doing
  important work,
• or it might motivate people to gain training,
• or it might reflect differences in peoples
  priorities

14
Insight of conflict theory

• We might need to limit inequality to the extent
  that it becomes divisive, dysfunctional and/or
  cancerous.
• Many societies in the past have had to devote
  more and more resources to coercion and social
  control,
• because they were divided by conflicts over
  inequality.

15
An example of a question suggesting a functional
view

• Only if differences in income and social standing
  are large enough is there an incentive for
  individual effort.
• A substantial majority of the national population
  agrees with that item.

16
Effect of income on belief in need for incentives
INCOME by CLASS?F (Only if differences
in income and social standing are large enough is
there an incentive for individual
effort.) AGREE DISAGREE Missing TOTAL LOW 218 14
0 10774 358 60.9 39.1 100.0 MID 360 25
9 13945 619 58.2 41.8 100.0 HIGH 172 1
11 10469 283 60.8 39.2 100.0 Miss 57 4
0 3681 3778 TOT 750 510 38869 1260
59.5 40.5 No effect of income. Why?
17
Effect of gender on belief in need for incentives
SEX by CLASS?F (Only if differences in
income and social standing are large enough is
there an incentive for individual
effort.) AGREE DISAGREE Missing TOTAL MALE 356
214 17081 570 62.5 37.5
100.0 FEMALE 451 336 21788 787 57.3 42.
7 100.0 TOTAL 807 550 38869 1357 59.5
40.5 A modest, but statistically
significant, effect in which men are more likely
to assert the need for inequality for incentives.
Why?
18
An example of a question suggesting a conflict
view

• In the United States, there are still great
  differences between social levels, and what one
  can achieve in life depends mainly upon ones
  family background.

19
Effect of income on belief that there is unequal
opportunity

• INCOME by what one can achieve in life
  depends mainly upon ones family background
• AGREE DISAGREE Missing TOTAL
• LOW 209 174 10749 383
• 54.6 45.4 100.0
• MIDDLE 277 363 13924 640
• 43.3 56.7 100.0
• HIGH 94 191 10467 28
• 33.0 67.0 100.0
• Missing 61 53 3664 3778
• TOTAL 580 728 38804 1308
• 44.3 55.7
• There is a strong effect. Rich people are far
  less likely to believe that what one can achieve
  in life depends mainly upon ones family
  background

20
Another conflict view

• And substantial minorities even agree that
• Personal income should not be determined solely
  by ones work. Rather, everybody should get what
  he/she needs to provide a decent life for his/her
  family

21
The main policy disagreement

• There is almost an even split on the issue

22
Effect of income on view that accumulation of
wealth and poverty is consistent with freedom

• INCOME by WLTH POV
• AGREE NEITHERDISAGREE Missing TOTAL
• LOW 103 54 184 10791 341
• 30.2 15.8 54.0 100.0
• MIDDLE 168 85 199 14112 452
• 37.2 18.8 44.0 100.0
• HIGH 189 82 127 10354 398
• 47.5 20.6 31.9 100.0
• Missing 64 43 68 3603 3778
• TOTAL 460 221 510 38860 1191
• 38.6 18.6 42.8
• Upper income respondents are substantially more
  likely to believe that freedom is consistent with
  the accumulation of wealth and poverty. 17
  more likely about 12 rather than about 1/3
  Why?

23
Effect of gender on view that accumulation of
wealth and poverty is consistent with freedom

• SEX by WLTH POV
• AGREE NEITHER DISAGREE TOTAL
• MALE 273 03 225 601
• 45.4 7.1 37.4 100.0
• FEMALE 251 161 353 765
• 32.8 21.0 46.1 100.0
• TOTAL 524 264 578 1366
• 8.4 19.3 42.3
• Men are substantially more likely to believe that
  freedom is consistent with the accumulation of
  wealth and poverty. 13 more likely about ½
  rather than 1/3 why?

24
Effect of race on view that accumulation of
wealth and poverty is consistent with freedom

• RACE by WLTH POV
• AGREE NEITHERDISAGREE TOTAL
• WHITE 457 198 420 1075
• 42.5 18.4 39.1 100.0
• BLACK 50 39 128 217
• 23.0 18.0 59.0 100.0
• TOTAL 507 237 548 1292
• 9.2 8.3 42.4
• White respondents are substantially more likely
  to believe that the accumulation of wealth and
  poverty is consistent with freedom
• 20 more likely a factor of two. Why?

25
Policy issues welfare

• The idea of welfare and the pursuit of welfare
  was overwhelmingly positively charged at the time
  of the New Deal
• As part of the American Dream and the American
  Creed - the ideal of a society of equal
  opportunity.
• It has a powerful negative charge today.
• This largely depends on the word the idea of aid
  to the poor, particularly poor children, is still
  positively charged
• While the idea of welfare has a powerful
  negative charge. why?

26
The ideology of welfare

• When asked about welfare more than half the
  population say we are spending too much

27
The issue of welfare and of aid to the poor

• But when asked about assistance to the poor
  nearly 2/3 say we are spending too little and 11
  say we are spending too much

28
How did welfare get redefined 1970 - 2000

• Some sociologists believe that the main issue has
  been The Color of Welfare (Quadagno) i.e.
  racial stereotyping of welfare recipients,
  combined with institutional racism.
• Some sociologists believe that it is based on a
  set of myths about welfare.
• It is also part of the overall shift to the
  market and to Social Darwinist ideas.