Teaching Geography

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Teaching Geography
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2001 NAEP Assessment 74 of students scored in
the below proficient category in geography in
grade four. Recent National GeographicRoper
country survey of ages 18 through 24, Americans
ranked second to last. Only 13 percent of young
adults aged 18 through 24 in the United States
were able to correctly identify Iraq on a map of
Asia and the Middle East.
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Key characteristics of geography tasks (1)
they are administered individually (2) they
involve active manipulation (3) they have
game-like qualities (4) they elicit a verbal
explanation from the children and (5) teachers
try to talk the students out of a correct
explanation to determine if the explanation is
fixed or random.
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NEW JERSEYS NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORY
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Ice sheet on Ellsmere Island, Canada
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From Tundra Semi-frozen Sub
Arctic Plain
To Deciduous Forests
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New Jersey During the Late Pleistocene Epoch
Circa 15,000-10,000 BP
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An Archaeological Local Sequence
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An Archaeological Local Sequence in NJ
Woodland Period
Circa 1000 BP
Raising Corn, Beans and Squash
Circa 2000 BP
Cultivating Grasses, Bow and Arrow
Archaic Hunters and Gatherers
Circa 3000 BP
Pottery
Semi Nomadic
Circa 8000 BP
Paleo Indians
Nomadic Herd Hunters
Circa 12000 BP
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CLOVIS TOOL KIT AND PROJECTILE POINTS
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Paleo Indian Projectile Points
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ARCHAIC PERIOD POINTS
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WOODLAND POINTS
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Woodland Period Pottery
Early
Middle
Late






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An Archaeological Local Sequence in NJ
Woodland Period
Circa 1000 BP
Raising Corn, Beans and Squash
Circa 2000 BP
Cultivating Grasses, Bow and Arrow
Archaic Hunters and Gatherers
Circa 3000 BP
Pottery
Semi Nomadic
Circa 8000 BP
Paleo Indians
Nomadic Herd Hunters
Circa 12000 BP
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Guns, Germs and Steel
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French English Spanish
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SALUTARY NEGLECT

• Even though England believed in a system of
  Mercantilism, Sir Robert Walpole espoused a view
  of "salutary neglect". This is a system whereby
  the actual enforcement of external trade
  relations was lax. He believed that this enhanced
  freedom for the colonists would stimulate
  commerce.
• The American Colonies were isolated from the
  Mother country. The commercial center of New York
  was located approximately 3400 miles from
  England's center of power, London. This distance
  created an independence of thinking from the
  Mother country that was encroached upon when
  England decided to become more involved in
  colonial affairs.

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THE BIG PICTURE
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• GEORGE III
• AMERICAS LAST KING
• By all accounts, George III was a good king who
  tried to rule wisely, but by 1776 American
  republicans viewed him as a bloody and corrupt
  tyrant.
• Diary Account of George III, July 4, 1776
• Nothing of importance happened today.

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THE CAUSES OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1763-1775
New England militiamen prepare to meet the
oncoming British regulars at the Battle of
Breeds Hill, just outside Boston, Massachusetts,
June 17, 1775.
30
THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR A STRONG BRITISH
COMMITMENTTwo years after the outbreak of the
French and Indian War, British Prime Minister
William Pitt the Elder decided to send a
substantial number of Redcoats to win a decisive
victory against the French in North
America.(Left) Two privates of the 77th
Highlanders visit a comrades grave in western
Pennsylvania.(Below) British infantry in line
of battle.
31
LEARNING FROM THE RANGERSA British officer (in
red at left) assigned to Rogers Rangers learns
about wilderness warfare from his Provincial
allies. The dog is Sergeant Beaubien, which
belonged to Captain John Stark, was listed on the
rolls as a duly enlisted Ranger.
32
THE BRITISH ADAPT TO INDIAN WARFAREBy combining
light infantry tactics with their traditional
discipline, British Redcoats learned to master
Indians in wilderness warfare. Here the 42nd
Black Watch Highland Regiment drives home an
attack at Bushy Run, Pennsylvania, August 5, 1763.
33
PONTIACS REBELLIONA bloody Indian uprising from
western Pennsylvania and across the Old Northwest
dramatically raised the cost of Britains new
North American empire. Here Black Watch
Highlanders from the 42nd Regiment of Foot defeat
the Indians at the Battle of Bushy Run, August 5,
1763, near Pittsburgh.
34
THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN NORTH AMERICA, 1763-1775
(Right) A private or fusilier of the 23rd
Regiment of Foot (Royal Welch Fusiliers), circa
1768.
35
Proclamation of 1763 A royal decree was issued
that prohibited the North American colonists from
establishing or maintaining settlements west of
an imaginary line running down the crest of the
Appalachian Mountains.
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TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION
Proclamation of 1763British Take Action Paying
for Protection          1. Sugar Act of
1764          2. Currency Act of
1764          3. Quartering Act of
1765          4. Stamp Act of 1765              
       a. Stamp Act Congress                    
b. Sons of Liberty          5. Townshend
Acts                     a. Boston
Massacre                    b. Committees of
Correspondence          6. Tea Act of
1773                     a. Boston Tea
Party          7. Intolerable Acts of 1774
37
THE STAMP ACT RIOTS Englands rulers were
unprepared for the vehemence and the violence
with which Americans would protest taxes not
approved by their own colonial legislatures.
Colonial mobs intimidated royal officials and
destroyed public and private property.
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THE SONS OF LIBERTY TAR AND FEATHER AN AMERICAN
TORY

• Beginning with the Stamp Act Crisis of 1765,
  colonial opponents of British tax policy used
  intimidation and mob violence to nullify British
  authority.

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DEFENDING THEIR RIGHTS AS ENGLISHMEN

• Colonists upset about Parliaments taxes force
  local merchants to sign a pledge to boycott
  British goods.
• Using economic sanctions as a political weapon is
  a hallowed American tradition.

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PATRICK HENRY AND THE VIRGINIA RESOLVES
With a deft use of the press, Patrick Henry
created the illusion that Virginias House of
Burgesses openly opposed the Stamp Act.
41
THE COLONIES FINALLY UNITE AGAINST A COMMON ENEMY
MOTHER ENGLANDBenjamin Franklins cartoon
advocating greater colonial unity and cooperation
was resurrected during the Stamp Act Crisis. It
pointed the way to the future.
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The Boston Massacre March 5, 1770 Paul Reveres
engraving shows how British soldiers, once seen
as protecters, came to be seen as a threat to
colonists safety.
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SUSPICIOUS OF STANDING ARMIESWith their
susceptibility to conspiracy theories, many
colonists believed that the 10,000 British troops
who remained in North America after the French
and Indian War were intended to reduce them to
slavery. (Left) Light infantry officer, 4th
Regiment of Foot. (Right) Battalion company
officer, 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers.
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BLOODSHED ON LEXINGTON GREEN, DAWN, APRIL 19, 1775
A confrontation between British light infantry
and the Lexington town militia early on April 19,
1775, triggered the shots that signaled the start
of the Revolutionary War.
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PATRIOT MILITIA IN ACTIONLEXINGTON GREEN, APRIL
19, 1775Contrary to this National Guard print,
the Lexington militia broke and fled at the first
British volley.
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PATRIOT MILITIAACTION AT BREEDS HILL, JUNE 17,
1775Fighting from behind stout field works, New
England militiamen stood their ground and held
off two British assaults, retreating before a
third only after their ammunition gave out.
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PATRIOT MILITIA ACTION AT BREEDS HILLPoorly
trained and often unequipped with bayonets,
militiamen could rarely hold their own against
British regulars at close quarters.
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PARTNERS IN RADICALISM(Left) Samuel Adams
quickly emerged as the leader of anti-British
agitation in Boston, the most radical city in the
Thirteen Colonies from 1763 to 1775. (Right)
John Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant,
enthusiastically supported Adams.
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THE POWER OF THE PRESSDuring the final years of
the colonial period, newspapers played a vital
role in mobilizing public opinion against British
tax policies.
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Thomas Paine
COMMON SENSE
All of the arguments for separation from England
are based on nothing more than simple facts,
plain arguments and common sense.
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WOMEN REVOLUTIONARIESThis British cartoon, A
Society of Patriotic Ladies, lampoons the
colonial women who joined in economic boycotts to
protest British tax policies.
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THE MAN WHO PROPOSED INDEPENDENCEActing on
behalf of the Commonwealth of Virginia, Richard
Henry Lee introduced a resolution calling upon
the Second Continental Congress to declare the
Thirteen Colonies free and independent states.
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DRAFTING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCEThis
painting shows (left to right) Benjamin Franklin,
John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson reviewing an
early draft of the document. Jeffersons
language, which stressed the need for good
government to be attentive to the needs of the
people, was an explicit statement of republican
thought.
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THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCEWhile a seated
John Hancock watches right of center, John Adams,
Roger Sherman, John Livingston, Thomas Jefferson,
and Philadelphias Dr. Benjamin Franklin present
the Declaration of Independence to the Second
Continental Congress for signing.
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THE REVOLUTIUON EMBRACES REPUBLICANISM(Right)
The Pennsylvania State House, known today as
Independence Hall because the Declaration of
Independence was adopted there. (Bottom left)
The Declaration of Independence. (Bottom right)
The Assembly Room where the Second Continental
Congress met.
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• REPUBLICANISM TRIUMPHANT
• American Whigs celebrate during a public reading
  of the Declaration of Independence, July 1776

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AN APPEAL TO REASON AN APPEAL TO ARMSThe
Declaration of Independence is read to General
George Washingtons Continental Army at Boston in
the summer of 1776. While Congress could declare
independence, it was up to these Rebel troops to
win it.
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THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE,
1775-83(Right) The 2nd South Carolina Regiment
holds Fort Moultrie in the face of a British
naval attack on Charleston, South Carolina, June
28, 1776.
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A BRITISH SHOW OF FORCE, 1774-75In 1774, the
British attempted to intimidate malcontents in
Massachusetts by placing the colony under martial
law and stationing 4,000 Redcoats in Boston. The
British garrison included these light infantry
officers from the 4th Regiment of Foot (left)
and the 10th Regiment of Foot (right).
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A REBELLION TURNS INTO A WAR FOR INDEPENDENCEIn
July 1776, the Second Continental Congress
(below) adopted a declaration that proclaimed the
Thirteen Colonies were now free and independent
states. (Right) The Declaration of Independence
is read to an enthusiastic crowd in a colonial
city.
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BRITISH ADVANTAGE A STANDING ARMY

• From the start of the Revolution to the end,
  Great Britains superbly disciplined infantry
  took pride in its willingness to close with the
  enemy with the bayonet.
• Washingtons Continentals did not master the
  bayonet until they came under the tutelage of
  Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben at Valley
  Forge in the winter of 1777-78.

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BRITISH ADVANTAGE A STANDING ARMYThe British
started the Revolution with a small but
well-trained regular army. British Redcoats were
the fastest musket men in Europe, able to fire
three to four shots in a minute.
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BRITISH ADVANTAGE THE ROYAL NAVYThe British
Navy began the Revolutionary War with 270
warships, including many ships of the line (18th
century battleships), like the 104-gun HMS
Victory.
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BRITISH ADVANTAGE THE ROYAL NAVY (Below) The
gun deck on the HMS Victory.(Right) A British
gun crew in action.
Nothing that the Patriots could put to sea could
match the firepower of a British ship of the
line. Consequently, the Continental Navy had to
resort to commerce raiding rather than challenge
the Royal Navy for control of the seas.
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BRITISH ADVANTAGE THE ROYAL NAVYNaval
supremacy allowed the British to land their
troops anywhere along the American coast at will,
while the Patriots, forced to rely on Americas
inadequate road network, could not move
Continental forces fast enough to check these
invasions.
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BRITISH ADVANTAGE THE ROYAL NAVYThe long
American coastline was vulnerable to British
amphibious operations.
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BRITISH HANDICAPA DIVIDED POPULACE

• The unpopularity of the War of Independence at
  home inhibited the British Armys recruiting
  efforts.
• Consequently, the British hired 30,000 troops
  from various German princes to serve in North
  America.
• The Patriots labeled these Hessians as
  barbarous mercenaries, and their use turned many
  colonists against the British cause.
• The soldier at right is a private from the Hesse
  Hanau Regiment Erbprinz, circa 1777.

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BRITISH ERROR MISHANDLING THE
LOYALISTSContemporary views of personnel from
the Queens Rangers. Under John Graves Simcoe,
these green-garbed troops delighted in setting
ambushes for their Rebel foes. The British army
could have raised many loyalist brigades in the
colonies but mistakenly did not.
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BRITISH ERRORMISHANDLING THE LOYALISTS

• A rifleman of the Queens Rangers. The Patriots
  were not the only ones to employ these long-range
  weapons to harass their enemies.
• The Queens Rangers was one of the few Loyalist
  units that the British Army allowed to engage in
  extensive combat.
• Most other Loyalist units were consigned to
  garrison duty, which made them feel mistrusted
  and sapped their morale.

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BRITISH HANDICAPGEOGRAPHY -- AMERICAS SIZE AND
DEMOGRAPHICSThis map of the Thirteen Colonies
shows the distribution of Americas population in
1775. A rural people, the colonists were able to
continue resistance even after the British seized
some of their most important cities.
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BRITISH HANDICAP FRENCH INTERVENTIONYearning
for revenge for previous defeats, France funneled
military aid to the Patriots beginning early in
the Revolution. With the Patriot victory at
Saratoga, the ministers of King Louis XVI (left)
decided France should enter the war as an ally of
the young United States and send French regulars
(right) to fight in North America.
72
BRITISH ERROR DIVIDED COMMANDIn 1777, General
William Howe (left) decided to capture
Philadelphia, rather than cooperate with General
John Burgoyne (right), who was leading a British
army south from Canada along the Hudson River.
Consequently, the Patriots were able to trap
Burgoyne at Saratoga and compel his surrender.
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PATRIOT MILITIA IN ACTIONBENNINGTON, AUGUST 17,
1777With stealth, deceit, and raw courage, 2,000
New England militia overran a foraging expedition
of 800 Hessians, Redcoats, Loyalists, and Indians
in a battle that helped turn the tide in the
decisive Saratoga Campaign.
74
BRITISH ERROR DIVIDED COMMANDGeneral Sir Henry
Clinton (left) tried to micro-manage the
campaigns that Lord Charles Cornwallis (right)
conducted in Virginia in 1781. Eventually,
Clinton ordered Cornwallis, who was conducting
effective mobile operations, to take refuge at
Yorktown, where the latter was trapped by a
French fleet and Franco-American army.
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• WASHINGTONS CONTINETALS, 1781 AN IDEALIZED
  VIEW
• A recent U.S. Army print showing General George
  Washingtons 1779 uniform regulations. A
  lieutenant from New York or New Jersey
  (foreground) strides past an artilleryman.
  Infantry from New England stand in the left
  background, and infantry from Pennsylvania,
  Maryland, or Virginia stand to the right.

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• WASHINGTONS CONTINENTALS, 1783 AN IDEALIZED
  VIEW
• General George Washington bestows the newly
  created Badge of Merit on a New England
  infantryman. A light dragoon from New England (at
  right) proudly wears the same award.
• In the background are musicians from a regiment
  from New York or New Jersey.

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CONTINENTAL UNIFORMS, 1777-80(Left to right)
Private, 2nd South Carolina Regiment, 1777-80
Private, 5th Pennsylvania Regiment, 1780
Sergeant, 2nd Connecticut Regiment, 1777
Private, George Rogers Clarks Illinois Regiment,
1780
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CONTINENTAL ELITES RIFLEMEN AND LIGHT
INFANTRY(Left to right) Private, Morgans Rifle
Corps, 1777 Private, Light Infantry Company, 2nd
Virginia Regiment, 1779 Sergeant, Corps of Light
Infantry (Lafayettes Light Division), 1781
79
WASHINGTONS CONTINENTALS THE REALITYAn
eyewitness sketch by a French officer who fought
at Yorktown shows (left to right) a black private
of the Rhode Island Regiment, a white soldier
from an unidentified regiment, a rifleman in his
fringed hunting shirt, and an artilleryman.
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A RESPECTABLE ARMY AT LASTContinental light
infantry and pioneers storm a British redoubt at
Yorktown, October 14, 1781.
After the Valley Forge encampment, 1777-78,
Washingtons Continentals took pride in their
ability to successfully engage their foes with
the bayonet.
81
GENERAL GEORGE WASHINGTON THE CONTINENTAL
ARMYS INDISPENSABLE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF,
1775-83Washington is seen here in his customary
blue and buff uniform shortly after taking
command of the Continental Army outside of Boston
in July 1775. To the left stands an aid in a
brown coat and to the right stands Major General
Artemas Ward, former commander of the New England
Army.
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GEORGE WASHINGTON A PORTRAIT FROM LIFEThis
1780 portrait by John Trumbull shows Washington
in his prime as commander-in-chief of the
Continental Army. The African American at right
is William Lee, Washingtons slave, who served as
his servant faithful companion throughout the war.
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A BRITISH HOST DESCENDS ON NEW YORKSome of the
officers and men of the huge army of 32,000
Redcoats and Hessians that General William Howe
assembled to take New York in the summer of 1776.
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DISASTER ON LONG ISLAND, AUGUST 27, 1776The
Delaware Regiment, one of the few Continental
units to give a good account of itself in the New
York Campaign, attempts to delay the advancing
Redcoats and Hessians in the battle that began
four months of defeat and retreat for George
Washingtons Main Army.
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Valley Forge
Timeline Leading to Valley Forge

• The suffering and sacrifices of the American
  soldiers at Valley Forge are familiar, iconic
  images, but there is another side of the picture.
  Valley Forge was where a new, confident,
  professional American army was born.
• Three months of shortage and hardship were
  followed by three months of relative abundance
  that led to wonderful changes in the morale and
  fighting capabilities of the Continental Army.
• France would enter the war on the side of the new
  nation. Valuable foreign volunteers and fresh
  replacements would trickle into camp.
• Most important, it was at Valley Forge that a
  vigorous, systematic training regime transformed
  ragged amateur troops into a confident 18th
  century military organization capable of beating
  the Red Coats in the open field of battle.

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Washington's Order Against Profanity

• The General is sorry to be informed that the
  foolish and wicked practice of profane cursing
  and swearing, a vice hitherto little known in our
  American Army is growing into fashion. He hopes
  that the officers will, by example as well as
  influence, endeavor to check it and that both
  they and the men will reflect that we can little
  hope of the blessing of Heaven on our army if we
  insult it by our impiety and folly. Added to this
  it is a vice so mean and low without any
  temptation that every man of sense and character
  detests and despises it.
• (Signed,) George Washington

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A DRAMATIC CHANGE IN STRATEGYThwarted in his
efforts to save New York City from the British,
Washington adopted a strategy of harassment that
would make it impossible for his opponents to
disperse their troops sufficiently to control the
American countryside.
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WASHINGTON CROSSES THE DELAWARE, DECEMBER 25-26,
1776Emanuel Leutzes 19th century painting is
not very accurate, but it certainly captures the
indomitable spirit that George Washington
displayed during the campaign.
90
WASHINGTONS TARGETS AT TRENTON(Left) A
soldiers of the Grenadier Regiment Rall and a
fusilier from the Regiment von Lossberg. (Below)
Feld Jaegers, elite Hessian riflemen.
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TRENTON, NEW JERSEY, DECEMBER 26, 1776Captain
Alexander Hamiltons Company of New York
Artillery fires down a street crowded with
confused Hessians during General George
Washingtons surprise attack.
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MAKING THE BEST USE OF THE PATRIOT MILITIATHREE
BATTLES IN THE SOUTH, 1780-81
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THE OPPOSING COMMANDERS AT CAMDEN(Left)
Lieutenant General Lord Charles
Cornwallis.(Right) Major General Horatio Gates.
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BRITISH ARMY COMBAT DRESS, 1776-83

• A contemporary portrait of Lieutenant Thomas
  Dowdeswell, 1st Regiment of Foot Guards, who
  served in the Thirteen Colonies from the summer
  of 1776 until July 1777.
• Dowdeswells coat is stripped of the extravagant
  gold lace prescribed for officers of his
  regiment, and he trusts to a fusil (musket) to
  protect himself in North Americas wooded terrain
  rather than the British line officers
  traditional spontoon (short pike) and sword.

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• MAJOR GENERAL NATHANAEL GREENE
• Washingtons most trusted lieutenant.
• Took command of the Southern Department following
  the Camden disaster.
• A poor tactician, but a brilliant and resilient
  strategist

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THE OPPOSING COMMANDERS AT COWPENS(Left)
Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton, young,
aggressive, and impulsive.(Below) Brigadier
General Daniel Morgan in the frontier uniform he
wore commanding Continental riflemen earlier in
the war.
102
COWPENS, JANUARY 17, 1781 (Left) A map of the
battlefield. (Below) A company officer from a
British fusilier regiment, like Tarletons 7th
Regiment of Foot.
103
TARLETON PREPARES FOR THE KILLTarletons troops
reached the Cowpens battlefield hungry and
exhausted, but they were confident of victory.
(Below) Highlanders of the 71st Regiment of Foot
deployed for battle.
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COWPENS, JANUARY 17, 1781The 3rd Continental
Light Dragoons and militia cavalrymen rout the
British 17th Light Dragoons and Loyalist troopers
of the British Legion.
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COWPENS, JANUARY 17, 1781Morgans
counterattacking militia overrun the 71st
Frasers Highlanders on Tarletons left flank.
Last-minute militia reinforcements probably
raised Morgans numbers closer to 2,000, a fact
he concealed for propaganda purposes to increase
the impact of his victory.
107
COWPENS, JANUARY 17, 1781Colonel John Eager
Howards Maryland Continentals overrun Lieutenant
Colonel Banastre Tarletons 7th Regiment of Foot.
108
GUILFORD COURTHOUSE, MARCH 15, 1781Major General
Nathanael Greene deploys the North Carolina
militia in the first of his three lines.
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GUILFORD COURTHOUSE, MARCH 15, 1781Lieutenant
General Lord Charles Cornwallis commits his
outnumbered army against Greenes first line.
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BAYONET TO BAYONET AT GUILFORD COURTHOUSE, MARCH
15, 1781Maryland Continentals and a crack
battalion of British Foot Guards engage in a
savage hand-to-hand melee that marked the climax
in the fight along Greenes third line. Although
the Redcoats were beaten back, Greene withdrew
his troops from the field, leaving Cornwallis to
claim an empty victory.
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VICTORY AT YORKTOWNThis 1784 Charles Willson
Peale portrait captures Washington at the scene
of his greatest triumph the siege that broke
the British will to continue the war against
American independence. In the background,
soldiers of the combined Franco-American army
parade with their colors the Stars and Stripes
of the young United States and the white banner
with golden fleur-de-lis of Bourbon France.
114
THE VITAL IMPORTANCE OF FRENCH AIDIt took the
assistance of a French army under the Comte de
Rochambeau (left) and a French fleet to allow
George Washington to trap Lord Cornwallis at
Yorktown.
115
THE PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE AMERICAN
REPUBLIC AND THE CONSTITUTION
116

• Philosophy and Political Thought
• Framers drew a lot of information from the
  Greeks, Romans, Magna Carta, English Bill of
  Rights, etc.
• Constitution was the first opportunity in history
  for people to read about and make a choice about
  their system of government.
• Literacy rate and the rate of participation in
  government was higher in the colonies than
  England.
• The Big Question
• How do you control the rulers? Government is
  needed to preserve our liberties, but if it is
  too strong it will destroy our liberties.

117

• Aristotle (and Plato Cicero) argued that
  morality is natural. Man is a political animal.
• There is a natural law that must be obeyed
  whether it is written down by legislative
  authorities or not. This is the essence of
  classical natural law theory.

118

• Cicero
• True law is right reason in agreement with
  nature it is of universal application,
  unchanging and everlasting. . . Whoever is
  disobedient is fleeing from himself and denying
  his human nature. . .

Thomas Aquinas Eternal Law ? All the laws of the
universe Natural Law ? The portion of the eternal
law that man can know through reason. Manmade
law ? Laws or regulations like traffic
ordinances. Divine Law? Law only known through
revelation (religious faith)
119

• Protestants, from Luther on, rejected Natural
  Law.
• Humans had original sin, which meant that their
  soul, mind, and body were corrupted by sin.
• Human reason was corrupt and could not be
  trusted.
• Truth only comes from Divine Revelation, as
  revealed to be consistent with Scripture.
  (Puritans)

120
Thomas Hobbes wrote an influential book titled
Leviathan. In this book, he details the idea of
the social contract which states that men
originally formed governments because of their
need for protection. In exchange for their
safety, the people gave up their rights to the
rulers including the right to revolt. His work is
important as a building block for later thinkers
including John Locke.
121
In Jean Jacques Rousseau's Social Contract(1762),
he presents the idea that government is only
viable if established by the "consent of the
governed." Therefore, it is incumbent on the
governed to assure that the leaders are
maintaining their part of the social contract.
122

• Locke-- Man being born, as has been proved, with
  a title to perfect freedom and an uncontrolled
  enjoyment of all the rights and privileges of the
  law of Nature, equally with any other man, or
  number of men in the world, hath by nature a
  power not only to preserve his property- that is,
  his life, liberty, and estate. . .

123

• James Harrington
• Harrington also borrows heavily from Hobbes.
  Harrington, however, uses history and economics
  to justify a republic, instead of a monarchy. He
  established the need for institutions like
  Machiavelli and the separation of power. His
  greatest contribution to the American Founders
  was his explanation of the need for institutions
  to balances the passions of men.

124

• Baron de Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat
• Montesquieu was one of the great political
  philosophers of the Enlightenment. He
  constructed a naturalistic account of the various
  forms of government. He saw despotism as a
  standing danger for any government, and argued
  that it could best be prevented by a system in
  which different bodies exercised legislative,
  executive, and judicial power, and in which all
  those bodies were bound by the rule of law. This
  theory of the separation of powers had an
  enormous impact on liberal political theory, and
  on the framers of the constitution of the United
  States of America.

125

• NATURAL LAW
• We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all
  men are created equal, that they are endowed by
  their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,
  that among these are Life, Liberty and the
  pursuit of Happiness.

126

• THE SECOND
• CONTINENTAL
• CONGRESS 1775-76 AMERICAS
• FIRST CENTRAL
• GOVERNMENT
• (Right) A French engraving showing Congress in
  action.
• (Below) The committee Congress selected to draft
  the Declaration of Independence.

127

• THE UNITED STATES IN 1783
• In addition to the Thirteen Colonies, Great
  Britain ceded all land east of the Mississippi
  River to the young republic

128
ALEXANDER HAMILTON, ADVOCATE OF NATIONAL POWER

• A Continental Army veteran and former member of
  General George Washingtons staff, Hamilton
  became a New York congressman.
• He openly criticized the weaknesses that the
  Articles of Confederation built into Americas
  first central government.

129
SHAYS REBELLION(Left) Rebellious Massachusetts
farmers close the courts to prevent confiscation
of their lands for unpaid back taxes. (Below)
The insurrection caused George Washington to
question if Americans were capable of governing
themselves.
130
A VULNERABLE FRONTIERAmericans moving west,
including pioneers, traders, and land
speculators, found their interests threatened by
the British, Spanish, and various Indian tribes.
131
A NAKED FRONTIERThe Articles of Confederation
left Congress unable to field a military force
strong enough to protect American settlers west
of the Appalachians. (Left) A tense
confrontation in the Ohio Valley. (Below) White
hunters scan the woods for hostile Indians.
132
THE 1st AMERICAN REGIMENT THE REPUBLICS
PITIFULLY SMALL MILITARYIn 1784, Congress
reduced American military to a single regiment,
the 1st American Regiment. Ranging in authorized
strength from 700 to 840, this force was too
small to deter Indian attacks or British and
Spanish efforts to stifle American growth.
133
DISGRUNTLED VETERANSAngry about not receiving
the back pay and pensions promised for their
services in the Revolution, former Continental
Army officers became some of the leading
advocates for a stronger central government.
134
INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIAWhere the
Constitutional Convention met in 1787.
135
GEORGE WASHINGTON, ADVOCATE OF NATIONAL POWER

• Alarmed by Shays Rebellion, Washington desired a
  stronger central government.
• He would lead Virginias delegation at the
  Constitutional Convention in 1787.

136
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTIONAn 1833 engraving
of George Washington presiding over the
convention.
137
JAMES MADISON, ADVOCATE OF NATIONAL POWER

• Another member of the Virginia delegation,
  Madison wanted a national government that would
  be supreme to state governments.
• He did not get everything that he wanted, but he
  actually wrote most of the Constitution.

138
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN,ADVOCATE OF NATIONAL POWER

• The oldest delegate at the Constitutional
  Convention and the most famous man in America
  next to George Washington, Franklin used his
  influence to persuade his fellow delegates to
  work in a spirit of compromise.

139
THE CONSTITUTION ADOPTEDThis modern painting of
the climactic moment in the Constitutional
Convention contains recognizable portraits of
many of the Founding Fathers, including George
Washington standing on the dais at right and
Benjamin Franklin seated at center.
140
THE FIRST PAGE OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES, 1787
141
THE BATTLE FOR RATIFICATIONA cartoon satirizing
the debate between Federalists and
Anti-Federalists in Connecticut.
142
LEADING ANTI-FEDERALISTSThose suspicious of the
new central government and the broad federal
powers proposed by the Constitution included such
former revolutionary firebrands as Samuel Adams
of Massachusetts (left) and Patrick Henry of
Virginia (right).
Thomas Jefferson (center) became the leader of
the Republican Party and the head of the
anti-federalist movement
143
THE FEDERALIST AND ITS AUTHORS(Right) Alexander
Hamilton.(Bottom left) John Jay.(Bottom right)
James Madison.
144
THE BILL OF RIGHTS
145
CREATING THE PUBLIC DOMAIN To encourage
ratification of the Constitution, all the states
with land claims west of the Appalachian
Mountains ceded that territory to the federal
government to be sold for the benefit of the
nation as a whole.
Chapter 7