Compilers

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Compilers

• Introduction
• Basic Compiler Function
• Lexical Analysis,
• Syntactic Analysis
• Operator-Precedence Parsing
• Shift Reduce Parsing
• Recusive Descent Parsing

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Definition Translation of Source language such
as high-level language such as FORTRAN, PL/1,
COBOL, C etc to a low-level language such as
assembly language or machine language is called a
compiler.
Object Program (Assembly level or machine level)
Compiler
Source Program Statements (Programming Language)
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• Interpreter
• Certain translators transform a programming
  language into a simplified language, called
  intermediate code, which can be directly executed
  using a program called an interpreter.
• Difference between Interpreter and Compiler
• Interpreters are smaller than compilers.
• Implementation of complex programming
  language constructs is easier.

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• Execution time of an Interpreters program is
  slower than that of a corresponding compiled
  object program.
• The interpreters need to retain source code,
  object code and the interpreter program in main
  memory that is an overhead.
• Each time the program is to be executed,
  the interpreter needs to be run.

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Compilation process is complex. Compilation
process is partitioned into a series of
sub-processes called phases. A phase is a
logically cohesive operation that takes as input
one representation of the source program and
produces as output another representation.
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Applications

• In addition to the development of a
• compiler, the techniques used in
• compiler design can be applicable to many
  problems in computer science.
• Techniques used in a lexical analyzer can be
  used in text editors, information retrieval
  system, and pattern recognition programs.
• Techniques used in a parser can be used in a
  query processing system such as SQL.

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• Many software having a complex
• front-end may need techniques
• used in compiler design.
• A symbolic equation solver which takes an
  equation as input. That program should parse
  the given input equation.
• Most of the techniques used in compiler
  design can be used in Natural Language
  Processing (NLP) systems.

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Phases of Compilers
Target Program
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• Lexical Analysis
• It is also called as Scanner.
• It separates characters of the source language
  into groups that logically belong together, these
  groups are called tokens.
• The usual tokens are
• Keyword DO, if, FOR, While
• Identifiers x, num,
• Operator symbols lt, , , -
• Punctuation symbols parentheses, commas.

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• Each token is considered as an logical entity.
• There are two kinds of tokens
• Specific string
• The specific strings are if, DO, FOR, While
• classes of strings
• Classes of strings are identifiers, constants or
  labels.
• A token may consists of two parts a Token type
  and a token value

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• Syntax Analyzer
• The output of the lexical analysis is a stream of
  tokens, which is passed to the next phase the
  syntax analyzer or parser.
• Syntax Analyzer groups tokens together into
  syntactic structure. For example, the three
  tokens representing A B might be grouped into
  a syntactic structure called as expression.
• Expressions might further be combined to form
  statements

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Syntactic structures can be regarded as a tree
whose leaves are the tokens. The interior nodes
of the tree represent strings of token that
logically belong together. Fig shows the syntax
tree for READ statement in PASCAL. Read( id,
ltid-listgt)
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• Intermediate Code generation
• The structured produced by the syntax analyzer
  is used by the intermediate code generator to
  create a stream of simple instructions.
• Intermediate code generated does not specify
  the registers to be used for each operation.

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• Code Optimization
• This phase is to reduce the space occupied by
  the generated code.
• It is also used to reduce the time of
  operation.
• This phase is optional.

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• Code Generation
• The object code is generated in this phase.
• It decides the memory location for data.
• It decides which registers should be used for
  computation.

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• Table Management
• It is used to store the literals,
• It stores the data types and
• it stores the data structure used to record this
  information called Symbol table.
• It Interacts with all the phases of the compiler.

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• Error Handler
• Indicates the error in the source program.
• It interacts with all the phases.
• The error information is passed from one phase
  to another.

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Passes in a Compiler In compiler implementation,
one of more phases are combined into a module
called a pass. The lexical analyzer and the
syntax analyzer are often grouped together into
the same pass.
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• GRAMMARS
• A grammar gives a precise syntactic
  specification for the programs of a particular
  programming language.
• An efficient parser can be constructed
  automatically from a properly designed grammar.
• A grammar imparts a structure to a program that
  is useful for its translation into object code
  and for the detection of errors.

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• A grammar involves four quantities
• Terminals
• Nonterminals
• a start symbol and
• productions
• The basic symbols of which strings in the
  language are composed we shall call terminals.

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The word token is a synonym for terminal when
we are talking about programming
language. Example Begin, end,
Nontermnals are special symbols that denote
sets of string. The terms syntactic variable
are synonyms for nonterminals. Example
statements, expression, statement-list etc.
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One nonterminal is selected as the start symbol,
and it denotes the language in which we are truly
interested. Productions define the ways in which
the syntactic categories may be built up from one
another and from the terminals. Each production
consists of a nonterminal, followed by an arrow
() , followed by a string of nonterminals and
terminals.
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Example For a simple arithmetic expression
mention the terminal symbols and
productions. Terminals Id, , - , /, ( and )
Production Expression expression operator
expression Expression ( expression
) Expression - expression Expression id
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Operator Operator - Operator
/ Operator The above grammar could be
written by short hand notation as E E A E
(E) -E id A - /
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• Parse Trees
• The choice of the replacement order can be
  represented graphically. This representation is
  called the parse tree.
• Each interior node of the parse tree is labeled
  by some nonterminal A.
• The children of the node are labeled from left
  to right by the symbols in the right side of the
  production by which this A was replaced in the
  derivation.

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Example A XYZ
Draw a parse tree for (id id).
Note Here E is the expression and id is
identifier
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The list of simplified Pascal grammar is shown in
fig. 1. lt prog gt PROGRAM lt program gt VAR
ltdec - list gt begin lt stmt -
list gt end. 2.    ltprog - namegt id 3.    lt
dec - list gt lt dec gt lt dec - list gt
4.    lt dec gt lt id - list gt lt type
gt 5.    lt type gt integer 6.    lt id - list gt
id lt id - list gt , id 7.    ltstmt -
list gt lt stmt gt ltstmt - list gt lt stmt
gt 8.    lt stmt gt lt assign gt ltread gt
lt write gt lt for gt
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9.    lt assign gt id lt exp gt
10.  ltexpgt lttermgtlt exp gt lt term gt lt exp gt
- lt term gt 11.  lttermgt factorgtlttermgtltfacto
rgtlttermgt DIV ltfactorgt 12.  lt factorgt id
int (lt exp gt) 13.  lt READgt READ (
lt id - list gt) 14.  lt write gt WRITE ( lt
id - list gt) 15.   lt for gt FOR lt idex -
exp gt Do lt body gt 16.  ltindex - expgt id
lt exp gt To ( exp gt 17.  lt body gt lt
start gt begin lt start - list gt end
Fig. Simplified Pascal
Grammar
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• 1 (a) Draw parse trees, according to the grammar
  in fig. pascal grammar for the following
  ltid-listgt S
• ALPHA
• (b) ALPHA, BETA, GAMMA

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2.Draw Parse tree, according to the
grammar in fig.
for the following
ltexpgtS (a)ALPHABETA (b)ALPHA - BETA
GAMMA. (c) ALPHA DIV (BETA GAMMA)
DELTA 3. Suppose the rules of the grammar for
ltexpgt and lttermgt is as follows ltexpgtlttermgtltex
pgtlttermgtltexpgtDivlttermgt lttermgtltfactorgtlttermgt
ltfactorgtlttermgt-ltfactorgt Draw the parse trees for
the following (i) A1B1 (ii) A1-B1G1
(iii)A1DIV(B1G1)-D1
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Lexical Analysis
Lexical Analysis involves scanning the program to
be compiled. Scanned items are recognized
directly as single tokens. These tokens could
be defined as a part of the grammar.
Example ltidgtltlettergtltidgtltlettergtltidgtltdigitgt
ltlettergtABC ... Z ltdigitgt
012 ...9 In such a case the scanner world
recognize as tokens the single characters
A,B,...Z,0,1,...9. The parser could interpret a
sequence of such characters as the language
construct ltidgt.
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• Features
• The length of the identifiers could be
  restricted.
• The scanner generally recognizes both single and
  multiple character tokens directly.
• The scanner output consists of sequence of
  tokens.
• This token can be considered to have a fixed
  length code.
• For a Pascal grammar list of integer code for
  each token is provided in table.

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Issues in Lexical Analyzer

• The lexical analyzer has to recognize the
  longest possible string.
• Ex identifier newva -- n ne new newv
  newva
• There is no end delimiter for the tokens
  defined.
• Normally we dont return a comment as a token
  and the comments are only processed by the
  lexical analyzer.
• Symbol table holds information about
  token.

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• Some scanners enter the identifiers directly
  into a symbol table. The token specifier for the
  identifiers may be a pointer to the symbol table
  entry for that identifier.
• The entire program is not scanned at one time.
• Scanner is a operator as a procedure that is
  called by the processor when it needs another
  token.
• Scanner is responsible for reading the lines of
  the source program and possible for printing the
  source listing.

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• The scanner, except for printing as the
• output listing, ignores comments.
• Scanner must look into the language
  characteristics.
• Example FOTRAN
• Columns 1 - 5 Statement number
• Column 6 Continuation of line
• Column 7-72 Program statement
• PASCAL Blanks function as delimiters for tokens
• Statement can be continued freely
• End of statement is indicated by (semi
  column)

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• Scanners should look into the rules
• for the formation of tokens.
• Example 'READ' Should not be considered as
  keyword as it is within quotes. i.e., all string
  within quotes should not be considered as token.
•   Blanks are significant within the quoted
  string.
•   Blanks has important factor to play in
  different language
• Example 1 FORTRAN Statement
• Do 10 I 1, 100
• Do is a key word, I is identifier, 10 is the
  statement number.

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Statement DO 10 I 1 It is an identifier
Do 10 I 1 Note Blanks are ignored in
FORTRAN statement and hence it is a assignment
statement. In this case the scanner must look
ahead to see if there is a comma (,) before it
can decide in the proper identification of the
character. Example 2 In FORTRAN keywords may
also be used as an identifier. Words such as if,
then, and ELSE might represent either keywords
or variable names.
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if (then .EQ. ELSE) then if
then ELSE then if endif
Modeling Scanners as Finite Automata   Finite
automatic provides an easy way to visualize the
operation of a scanner. An algorithm is shown
to recognize a token.
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Get first Input-character if
Input-character in 'A' .. ' Z' then
Begin while Input-character in 'A' ..
'Z', ' 0'.. ' 9' do Begin get next
input character if Input_character _
then Begin get next
Input_character Last_Char_is_Underscore
true End if _
Else

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Last_Char_Is_Underscorefalse
end while if
Last_Char_Is_Underscore then
return(token-error) else
return (Valid_token) end if first is
'A' .. ' Z' else return
(token-error)
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SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS

• Syntax Analyzer creates the syntactic
  structure of the given source program.
• Syntax Analyzer is also known as parser.
• The syntax of a programming is described by a
  context-free grammar (CFG). We will use BNF
  (Backus-Naur Form) notation in the description of
  CFGs.
• The syntax analyzer (parser) checks whether a
  given source program satisfies the rules implied
  by a context-free grammar or not.

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• If it satisfies, the parser creates
  the parse tree of that program.
• Otherwise the parser gives the error messages.
• A context-free grammar
• gives a precise syntactic specification of a
  programming language.
• the design of the grammar is an initial phase
  of the design of a compiler.
• a grammar can be directly converted into a
  parser by some tools.

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• Parser works on a stream of tokens.
• The smallest item is a token.
• We categorize the parsers into two groups
• Top-Down Parser the parse tree is created top
  to bottom, starting from the root.
• Bottom-Up Parser the parse is created bottom to
  top starting from the leaves

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Bottom up Bottom up methods begin with the
terminal nodes of the tree and attempt to
combine these into successively high - level
nodes until the root is reached. Top down Top
down methods begin with the rule of the grammar
that specifies the goal of the analysis ( i.e.,
the root of the tree), and attempt to construct
the tree so that the terminal nodes match the
statement being analyzed.
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• Both top-down and bottom-up
• parsers scan the input from left
• to right (one symbol at a time).
• Efficient top-down and bottom-up parsers can be
  implemented only for sub-classes of context-free
  grammars.
• LL for top-down parsing
• LR for bottom-up parsing

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Context-Free Grammars

• Inherently recursive structures of a programming
  language are defined by a context-free grammar.
• In a context-free grammar, we have
• A finite set of terminals (in our case, this
  will be the set of tokens)
• A finite set of non-terminals
  (syntactic-variables)
• A finite set of productions rules in the
  following form

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• A ? ?
• where A is a non-terminal and
• ? is a string of terminals and non-terminals
  (including the empty string)
• A start symbol (one of the non-terminal symbol)
• Example
• E ? E E E E E E E / E
  - E
• E ? ( E )
• E ? id

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Derivations
E EE EE derives from E we can replace E by
EE to able to do this, we have to have a
production rule EEE in our grammar. E
EE idE idid A sequence of replacements of
non-terminal symbols is called a derivation of
idid from E.
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Left-Most Derivation E ? -E ? -(E) ? -(EE) ?
-(idE) ? -(idid) Right-Most Derivation E ? -E
? -(E) ? -(EE) ? -(Eid) ? -(idid) We will see
that the top-down parsers try to find the
left-most derivation of the given source
program. We will see that the bottom-up parsers
try to find the right-most derivation of the
given source program in the reverse order.
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Parse Tree

• Inner nodes of a parse
• tree are non-terminal symbols.
• The leaves of a parse tree
• are terminal symbols.
• A parse tree can be seen as a graphical
  representation of a derivation.

? -(E)
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Ambiguity
A grammar produces more than one parse tree for
a sentence is called as an ambiguous grammar.
E ? EE ? idE ? idEE ? ididE ? ididid
E ? EE ? EEE ? idEE ? ididE ? ididid
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• Operator-Precedence Parsing
• It is very simple
• Used in languages where virtually all
  operators are used. Example SNOBOL.
• Three disjoint relations lt. and .gt are used
  between certain pairs of terminals.
• If alt. b we say that a yields precedence to
  b.
• if ab we say that a has same precedence as b.
• If a .gtb we say that a takes precedence over b.

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OPERATOR PRECEDENCE PARSING The bottom up
parsing technique considered is called the
operator precedence method. This method is loaded
on examining pairs of consecutive operators in
the source program and making decisions about
which operation should be performed first.
Example A B C - D (1)
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There are two ways of determining what precedence
relation should hold between a pair of
terminals. First Method Intuitive method based
on the traditional notions of associativity and
precedence of operators. The usual procedure of
operation is multiplication and division has
higher precedence over addition and
subtraction. the two operators ( and ), we find
that has lower precedence than . This is
written as ? has lower precedence .
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Consider the following grammar for expressions E
E A E (E) -E id (2) A -
/ It is not an operator grammar. If we
substitute for A each of its alternates, we
obtain the following operator grammar E E
E E E E E E / E (E) -E id The
ambiguity with this grammar is that it does not
indicate precedence of relations.
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There are two ways of determining what precedence
relation should hold between a pair of
terminals. First Method Intuitive method based
on the traditional notions of associativity and
precedence of operators. This approach will
resolve the ambiguities of grammar shown in (2)
and allow us to resolve the ambiguities. Second
Method An Unambiguous grammar for the
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language is constructed first. This grammar
reflects the correct associativity and precedence
in its parse trees. Example For arithmetic
expressions involving , -, , / the grammar is
E E E E E E E E / E (E)
-E id
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To construct an unambiguous
grammar, there is a mechanical
method for constructing
operator-precedence relations form it. Example
for the expression
id id id the operator
precedence
relations table
is as follows
precedence
relations table
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• The given expression is considered
  as string.
• All the nonterminals are removed
  and correct relation ? ,? and ? are
  placed between terminals as per the operator
  precedence relations.
• is placed at the beginning and the end of
  the string.
• Example id id id id
• ? ? ?

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Precedence matrix for the grammar Pascal rammar
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For a Pascal Grammar the precedence for some of
the tokens are explained. Example PROGRAM?VAR
These two tokens have equal precedence Begin ?
FOR begin has lower precedence over FOR.
There are some values which do not follow
precedence relations for comparisons. Example
? end and end ? i.e., when is
followed by end, the ' ' has higher precedence
and when end is followed by the end has higher
precedence.
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In all the statements where precedence
relation does not exist in the table,
two tokens cannot appear
together in any legal statement. If such
combination occurs during parsing it should be
recognized as error. Example Pascal
Statement begin READ (VALUE)
These Pascal statements scanned from left to
right, one token at a time. For each pair of
operators, the precedence relation between them
is determined.
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• . . . begin READ ( id )
  
  ? ? ? ?
• 2. . . . begin READ ( lt N1 gt )
  (N1)
• ? ? ?
  ?
• id
• 
  Value

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. . . begin lt N2 gt
ltN2 gt
READ ( ltN1gt )
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• Example Show a step-by-step parsing for the
  assignment
• VARIANCE SUMSQ DIV 100 - MEAN MEAN
• . . id 1 id 2 DIV int -
  id3 id4
• ? ? ?
• Left to right scan is continued in each step
  only far enough to determine the next portion of
  the statement to be recognized, which is the
  first portion delimited by ? and ?.
• Once this portion has been determined, it is
  interpreted as a nonterminal according t some
  rule of the grammar.

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Parse tree is constructed from the terminal nodes
up towards the root, hence the term bottom-up
parsing.
The id SUMSQ is interpreted as the single
nonterminal ltN1gt, which is an operand of the
DIV. That is, ltN1gt in the tree corresponds to two
non terminals, ltfactorgt and lttermgt as per the
pascal grammar.
ii . . . id 1 ltN1gt DIV int -
id3 id4
? ? ? ?
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iii . id 1 ltN1gt DIV ltN2gt- id3 id4
? ?
? iv id 1 ltN3gt - id3 id4

? ? ? ?
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v id 1 ltN3gt - ltN4gt id4

? ? ? ?
? vi id 1 ltN3gt - ltN4gt ltN5gt

? ? ?
? vii id 1 ltN3gt - ltN6gt

? ? ?
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.. id1 ltN7gt
?
? ?
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ltN8gt
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• SHIFT REDUCE PARSING
• The operator precedence parsing is bottom up
  parsing.
• It was developed to shift reduce parsing.
• This method makes use of a stack to store tokens
  that have not yet been recognized in terms of the
  grammar.
• The actions of the parser are controlled by
  entries in a table, which is somewhat similar to
  the precedence matrix.

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• The two main actions of shift reducing parsing
  are
• Shift Push the current token into the stack.
• Reduce Recognize symbols on top of the stack
  according to a rule of a grammar
• Example begin READ ( id ) . . .
• Steps Token Stream
• 1. . . . begin READ ( id ) . . .

Stack
Begin is first pushes the token on stack
Shift
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2. . . . begin READ ( id ) . . . 3. . . .
begin READ ( id ) . . .
The next token READ is also shifted on to the
stack.
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3. . . . begin READ ( id ) . . .
4. . . . begin READ ( id ) . . .
5. . . . begin READ ( id ) . . .
When it parser examines the token ), the reduce
action is invoked.
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A set of tokens from the top of the
stack is reduced to anon
terminal
symbol from the grammar. It is pushed onto the
stack, to be reduced later as part of the READ
statement. Note Shift action is taken by an
operator-precedence parser when it encounters the
relations ? and ? . Reduce action is taken
when an operator
precedence parser encounters the relation ?.
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RECURSIVE DESCENT PARSING

• Recursive-Descent is a top-down parsing
  technique.
• It is made up of a procedure for each
  non-terminal symbol in the grammar.
• A procedure is associated to find a sub-string
  of the input.
• During this process it may call other
  procedures, or call itself recursively to search
  for other non-terminals.
• If the procedure finds the non-terminal it
  returns success else failure.

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Example ltreadgt READ (ltid-listgt) The
procedure for READ statement is provided which is
derived from the grammar. The grammar considered
are ltid - listgt id , id unlike the one
considered earlier.   lt id - list gt id
ltid-listgt, id
This is because of the fundamental difficulty. If
the procedure decided to try the second
alternative
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(ltid-listgt, id), it would immediately
call itself recursively to find an ltid-listgt.
This would result in another
immediate recursive call, which leads to unending
chain. Note that an integer code is provided for
each token as listed earlier. PROCEDURE READ
begin FOUND FALSE if TOKEN 8 READ
then
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The READ procedure has been invoked and has
examined the tokens READ and the stream indicated
by dashed lines.
begin advance to next token if TOKEN 20
( then begin advance to next token
if IDLIST returns
success then
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READ has called IDLIST (indicated by solid line),
which has examined the token id.
if token 21 ) then begin
FOUND TRUE advance to
next token end if ) end
if ( end if READ
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if FOUND TRUE then return success
else return failure end (READ)
IDLIST has returned to READ, indicating
success. Note The parse tree was constructed
beginning at the root, hence the term top-down
parsing.
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Procedure for the IDLIST This
procedure checks whether the id-list is as per
the grammar. Procedure IDLIST begin FOUND
FALSE if TOKEN 22 id then
begin FOUND TRUE
advance to Next token
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A flag is set to indicate that the identifier
is found and is ok. It
checks for the ,
in the next statement while (TOKEN 14 ,) and
(FOUND TRUE) do begin advance to next
token if TOKEN 22 id then
advance to next token else
FOUND FALSE end
while end if id
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if FOUND TRUE then return success
else return failure end IDLIST
If , is not followed by an id the function
returns failure. eg. id,id, - Is an error
Recursive descent parse of the Assignment
Statement procedure and the parse tree is shown
for the nonterminal symbols. ltassigngt id
ltexpgt
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Procedure ASSIGN begin FOUND
FALSE if TOKEN 22 id then
begin advance to Next token
if TOKEN 15 then
begin advance to next token
if EXP returns success then
FOUND TRUE end
if end end id
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if FOUND TRUE then
return success else return
failure end ASSIGN
Parse tree for Assignment
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Grammar for expression is ltexpgt lttermgt
lttermgt - lttermgt Procedure EXP begin
FOUND FALSE If TERM returns success then
begin FOUND TRUE while ((TOKEN
16)or (TOKEN 17 -))
and (FOUND TRUE) do
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begin advance to next
token if TERM returns success
then FOUND FALSE end
while end if TERM if FOUND
TRUE then return success else return
failure end EXP
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Parse Tree for ASSIGN - TERM
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Procedure TERM begin FOUND FALSE
If FACTOR returns success then
begin FOUND TRUE while ((TOKEN
18 ) or (TOKEN 19
DIV ) and (FOUND TRUE) do
begin advance to next token
if TERM returns
failure then
FOUND FALSE
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end while end if FACTOR
if FOUND TRUE then return
success else return failure
end TERM The TERM calls the procedure factor.
If it returns success then it proceeds. The
Factor procedure is as follows
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Procedure FACTOR begin FOUND FALSE
if (TOKEN22id) or (TOKEN23int) then
begin FOUND TRUE
advance to next token end if id or int
else if TOKEN 20 (
then begin advance to
next token
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if EXP returns success then if TOKEN 21 )
then begin (FOUND TRUE)
advance to next token end if )
end if ( if FOUND TRUE
then return success else return
failure end FACTOR
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