Languages and Compilers (SProg og Overs

1
Languages and Compilers(SProg og Oversættere)

• Bent Thomsen
• Department of Computer Science
• Aalborg University

With acknowledgement to Norm Hutchinson whose
slides this lecture is based on.
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Curricula (Studie ordning)
The purpose of the course is for the student to
gain knowledge of important principles in
programming languages and for the student to gain
an understanding of techniques for describing and
compiling programming languages.
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What was this course about?

• Programming Language Design
• Concepts and Paradigms
• Ideas and philosophy
• Syntax and Semantics
• Compiler Construction
• Tools and Techniques
• Implementations
• The nuts and bolts

4
The principal paradigms

• Imperative Programming (C)
• Object-Oriented Programming (C)
• Logic/Declarative Programming (Prolog)
• Functional/Applicative Programming (Lisp)
• New paradigms?
• Agent Oriented Programming
• Business Process Oriented (Web computing)
• Grid Oriented

5
Criteria in a good language design

• Writability The quality of a language that
  enables a programmer to use it to express a
  computation clearly, correctly, concisely, and
  quickly.
• Readability The quality of a language that
  enables a programmer to understand and comprehend
  the nature of a computation easily and
  accurately.
• Orthogonality The quality of a language that
  features provided have as few restrictions as
  possible and be combinable in any meaningful way.
• Reliability The quality of a language that
  assures a program will not behave in unexpected
  or disastrous ways during execution.
• Maintainability The quality of a language that
  eases errors can be found and corrected and new
  features added.

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Criteria (Continued)

• Generality The quality of a language that avoids
  special cases in the availability or use of
  constructs and by combining closely related
  constructs into a single more general one.
• Uniformity The quality of a language that
  similar features should look similar and behave
  similar.
• Extensibility The quality of a language that
  provides some general mechanism for the user to
  add new constructs to a language.
• Standardability The quality of a language that
  allows programs written to be transported from
  one computer to another without significant
  change in language structure.
• Implementability The quality of a language that
  provides a translator or interpreter can be
  written. This can address to complexity of the
  language definition.

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Important!

• Syntax is the visible part of a programming
  language
• Programming Language designers can waste a lot of
  time discussing unimportant details of syntax
• The language paradigm is the next most visible
  part
• The choice of paradigm, and therefore language,
  depends on how humans best think about the
  problem
• There are no right models of computations just
  different models of computations, some more
  suited for certain classes of problems than
  others
• The most invisible part is the language semantics
• Clear semantics usually leads to simple and
  efficient implementations

8
Levels of Programming Languages
High-level program
class Triangle ... float surface()
return bh/2
Low-level program
LOAD r1,b LOAD r2,h MUL r1,r2 DIV r1,2 RET
Executable Machine code
0001001001000101001001001110110010101101001...
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Terminology
Q Which programming languages play a role in
this picture?
Translator
input
output
source program
object program
A All of them!
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Tombstone Diagrams

• What are they?
• diagrams consisting out of a set of puzzle
  pieces we can use to reason about language
  processors and programs
• different kinds of pieces
• combination rules (not all diagrams are well
  formed)

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Syntax Specification

• Syntax is specified using Context Free
  Grammars
• A finite set of terminal symbols
• A finite set of non-terminal symbols
• A start symbol
• A finite set of production rules
• Usually CFG are written in Bachus Naur Form or
  BNF notation.
• A production rule in BNF notation is written as
• N a where N is a non terminal
  and a a sequence of terminals and non-terminals
• N a b ... is an abbreviation for
  several rules with N
• as left-hand side.

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Concrete and Abstract Syntax

• The previous grammar specified the concrete
  syntax of mini triangle.

The concrete syntax is important for the
programmer who needs to know exactly how to write
syntactically well-formed programs.
The abstract syntax omits irrelevant syntactic
details and only specifies the essential
structure of programs.
Example different concrete syntaxes for an
assignment v e (set! v e) e -gt v v e
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Abstract Syntax Trees

• Abstract Syntax Tree for dd10n

AssignmentCmd
BinaryExpression
BinaryExpression
VName
VNameExp
IntegerExp
VNameExp
SimpleVName
SimpleVName
SimpleVName
Int-Lit
Ident
Op
Ident
Ident
Op

10
d
n
d

14
Contextual Constraints
Syntax rules alone are not enough to specify the
format of well-formed programs.
Example 1 let const m2 in m x
Example 2 let const m2 var nBoolean in
begin n mlt4 n n1 end
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Semantics
Specification of semantics is concerned with
specifying the meaning of well-formed programs.

• Terminology
• Expressions are evaluated and yield values (and
  may or may not perform side effects)
• Commands are executed and perform side effects.
• Declarations are elaborated to produce bindings
• Side effects
• change the values of variables
• perform input/output

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Phases of a Compiler

• A compilers phases are steps in transforming
  source code into object code.
• The different phases correspond roughly to the
  different parts of the language specification
• Syntax analysis lt-gt Syntax
• Contextual analysis lt-gt Contextual constraints
• Code generation lt-gt Semantics

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The Phases of a Compiler
Source Program
Syntax Analysis
Error Reports
Abstract Syntax Tree
Contextual Analysis
Error Reports
Decorated Abstract Syntax Tree
Code Generation
Object Code
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Compiler Passes

• A pass is a complete traversal of the source
  program, or a complete traversal of some internal
  representation of the source program.
• A pass can correspond to a phase but it does
  not have to!
• Sometimes a single pass corresponds to several
  phases that are interleaved in time.
• What and how many passes a compiler does over the
  source program is an important design decision.

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Single Pass Compiler
A single pass compiler makes a single pass over
the source text, parsing, analyzing and
generating code all at once.
Dependency diagram of a typical Single Pass
Compiler
Compiler Driver
calls
Syntactic Analyzer
calls
calls
Contextual Analyzer
Code Generator
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Multi Pass Compiler
A multi pass compiler makes several passes over
the program. The output of a preceding phase is
stored in a data structure and used by subsequent
phases.
Dependency diagram of a typical Multi Pass
Compiler
Compiler Driver
calls
calls
calls
Syntactic Analyzer
Contextual Analyzer
Code Generator
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Syntax Analysis
Dataflow chart
Source Program
Stream of Characters
Scanner
Error Reports
Stream of Tokens
Parser
Error Reports
Abstract Syntax Tree
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Regular Expressions

• RE are a notation for expressing a set of strings
  of terminal symbols.

Different kinds of RE e The empty
string t Generates only the string t X
Y Generates any string xy such that x is
generated by x and y is generated by Y X
Y Generates any string which generated either
by X or by Y X The concatenation of zero or
more strings generated by X (X) For grouping,
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FA and the implementation of Scanners

• Regular expressions, (N)DFA-e and NDFA and DFAs
  are all equivalent formalism in terms of what
  languages can be defined with them.
• Regular expressions are a convenient notation for
  describing the tokens of programming languages.
• Regular expressions can be converted into FAs
  (the algorithm for conversion into NDFA-e is
  straightforward)
• DFAs can be easily implemented as computer
  programs.

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Parsing

• Parsing Recognition determining phrase
  structure (for example by generating AST)
• Different types of parsing strategies
• bottom up
• top down
• Recursive descent parsing
• What is it
• How to implement one given an EBNF specification
• Bottom up parsing algorithms

25
Top-down parsing
Sentence
The
cat
sees
a
rat
.
The
cat
sees
rat
.
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Bottom up parsing
The
cat
sees
a
rat
.
The
cat
sees
a
rat
.
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Top-Down vs Bottom-Up parsing


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Development of Recursive Descent Parser

• (1) Express grammar in EBNF
• (2) Grammar Transformations
• Left factorization and Left recursion elimination
• (3) Create a parser class with
• private variable currentToken
• methods to call the scanner accept and acceptIt
• (4) Implement private parsing methods
• add private parseN method for each non terminal
  N
• public parse method that
• gets the first token form the scanner
• calls parseS (S is the start symbol of the
  grammar)

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LL 1 Grammars

• The presented algorithm to convert EBNF into a
  parser does not work for all possible grammars.
• It only works for so called LL 1 grammars.
• Basically, an LL1 grammar is a grammar which can
  be parsed with a top-down parser with a lookahead
  (in the input stream of tokens) of one token.
• What grammars are LL1?
• How can we recognize that a grammar is (or is
  not) LL1?
• We can deduce the necessary conditions from the
  parser generation algorithm.
• We can use a formal definition

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Converting EBNF into RD parsers

• The conversion of an EBNF specification into a
  Java implementation for a recursive descent
  parser is so mechanical that it can easily be
  automated!
• gt JavaCC Java Compiler Compiler

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JavaCC and JJTree
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LR parsing

• The algorithm makes use of a stack.
• The first item on the stack is the initial state
  of a DFA
• A state of the automaton is a set of LR0/LR1
  items.
• The initial state is constructed from productions
  of the form S a , (where S is the start
  symbol of the CFG)
• The stack contains (in alternating) order
• A DFA state
• A terminal symbol or part (subtree) of the parse
  tree being constructed
• The items on the stack are related by transitions
  of the DFA
• There are two basic actions in the algorithm
• shift get next input token
• reduce build a new node (remove children from
  stack)

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Bottom Up Parsers Overview of Algorithms

• LR0 The simplest algorithm, theoretically
  important but rather weak (not practical)
• SLR An improved version of LR0 more practical
  but still rather weak.
• LR1 LR0 algorithm with extra lookahead token.
• very powerful algorithm. Not often used because
  of large memory requirements (very big parsing
  tables)
• LALR Watered down version of LR1
• still very powerful, but has much smaller parsing
  tables
• most commonly used algorithm today

34
JavaCUP A LALR generator for Java
Grammar BNF-like Specification
Definition of tokens Regular Expressions
JavaCUP
JFlex
Java File Parser Class Uses Scanner to get
TokensParses Stream of Tokens
Java File Scanner Class Recognizes Tokens
Syntactic Analyzer
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Steps to build a compiler with SableCC

1. Create a SableCC specification file
2. Call SableCC
3. Create one or more working classes, possibly
   inherited from classes generated by SableCC
4. Create a Main class activating lexer, parser and
   working classes
5. Compile with Javac

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Contextual Analysis Phase

• Purposes
• Finish syntax analysis by deriving
  context-sensitive information
• Associate semantic routines with individual
  productions of the context free grammar or
  subtrees of the AST
• Start to interpret meaning of program based on
  its syntactic structure
• Prepare for the final stage of compilation Code
  generation

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Contextual Analysis -gt Decorated AST
Annotations
Program
result of identification
LetCommand
type result of type checking
SequentialCommand
SequentialDeclaration
AssignCommand
int
AssignCommand
BinaryExpr
VarDecl
Char.Expr
VNameExp
Int.Expr
char
int
int
int
SimpleT
SimpleV
SimpleV
char
int
Ident
Ident
Ident
Ident
Ident
Ident
Ident
Op
Char.Lit
Int.Lit
n
c
n
n
Integer
Char
c


1
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Nested Block Structure
A language exhibits nested block structure if
blocks may be nested one within another
(typically with no upper bound on the level of
nesting that is allowed).
Nested

• There can be any number of scope levels
  (depending on the level of nesting of blocks)
• Typical scope rules
• no identifier may be declared more than once
  within the same block (at the same level).
• for any applied occurrence there must be a
  corresponding declaration, either within the same
  block or in a block in which it is nested.

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Type Checking

• For most statically typed programming languages,
  a bottom up algorithm over the AST
• Types of expression AST leaves are known
  immediately
• literals gt obvious
• variables gt from the ID table
• named constants gt from the ID table
• Types of internal nodes are inferred from the
  type of the children and the type rule for that
  kind of expression

40
Contextual Analysis
Identification and type checking are combined
into a depth-first traversal of the abstract
syntax tree.
Program
LetCommand
SequentialCommand
SequentialDeclaration
AssignCommand
AssignCommand
BinaryExpression
VarDec
VarDec
VnameExpr
IntExpr
CharExpr
SimpleT
SimpleT
SimpleV
SimpleV
SimpleV
Ident
Ident
Ident
Ident
Ident
CharLit
Ident
Ident
Op
IntLit
n
Integer
c
Char
c

n
n

1
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Visitor

• Solution using Visitor
• Visitor is an abstract class that has a different
  method for each type of object on which it
  operates
• Each operation is a subclass of Visitor and
  overloads the type-specific methods
• Objects that are operated on, accept a Visitor
  and call back their type-specific method passing
  themselves as operands
• Object types are independent of the operations
  that apply to them
• New operations can be added without modifying the
  object types

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Visitor Solution

• Nodes accept visitors and call appropriate method
  of the visitor
• Visitors implement the operations and have one
  method for each type of node they visit

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Runtime organization

• Data Representation how to represent values of
  the source language on the target machine.
• Primitives, arrays, structures, unions, pointers
• Expression Evaluation How to organize computing
  the values of expressions (taking care of
  intermediate results)
• Register vs. stack machine
• Storage Allocation How to organize storage for
  variables (considering different lifetimes of
  global, local and heap variables)
• Activation records, static links
• Routines How to implement procedures, functions
  (and how to pass their parameters and return
  values)
• Value vs. reference, closures, recursion
• Object Orientation Runtime organization for OO
  languages
• Method tables

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RECAP TAM Frame Layout Summary

Arguments for current procedure they were put
here by the caller.
arguments
LB
dynamic link static link return address
Link data
local variables and intermediate results
Local data, grows and shrinks during execution.
ST
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Garbage Collection Conclusions

• Relieves the burden of explicit memory allocation
  and deallocation.
• Software module coupling related to memory
  management issues is eliminated.
• An extremely dangerous class of bugs is
  eliminated.
• The compiler generates code for allocating
  objects
• The compiler must also generate code to support
  GC
• The GC must be able to recognize root pointers
  from the stack
• The GC must know about data-layout and objects
  descriptors

46
Code Generation
Source Program
Target program
let var n integer var c charin begin c
n n1end
PUSH 2LOADL 38STORE 1SBLOAD 0LOADL 1CALL
addSTORE 0SBPOP 2HALT
Source and target program must be semantically
equivalent
Semantic specification of the source language is
structured in terms of phrases in the SL
expressions, commands, etc. gt Code generation
follows the same inductive structure.
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Specifying Code Generation with Code Templates
The code generation functions for Mini Triangle
Phrase Class Function Effect of the generated
code
Run program P then halt. Starting and finishing
with empty stack Execute Command C. May update
variables but does not shrink or grow the
stack! Evaluate E, net result is pushing the
value of E on the stack. Push value of constant
or variable on the stack. Pop value from stack
and store in variable V Elaborate declaration,
make space on the stack for constants and
variables in the decl.
Program Command Expres- sion V-name V-name Decl
a-ration
run P execute C evaluate E fetch V assign
V elaborate D
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Code Generation with Code Templates
While command
execute while E do C JUMP h g execute
C h evaluateE JUMPIF(1) g
C
E
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Developing a Code Generator Visitor
execute C1 C2 executeC1 executeC2
public Object visitSequentialCommand( Sequent
ialCommand com,Object arg) com.C1.visit(this,a
rg) com.C2.visit(this,arg) return null
LetCommand, IfCommand, WhileCommand gt later. -
LetCommand is more complex memory allocation and
addresses - IfCommand and WhileCommand
complications with jumps
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JVM
External representation platform independent
JVM
internal representation implementation dependent
.class files
load
classes
primitive types
integers
objects
arrays
methods
The JVM is an abstract machine in the true sense
of the word. The JVM spec. does not specify
implementation details (can be dependent on
target OS/platform, performance requirements
etc.) The JVM spec defines a machine independent
class file format that all JVM implementations
must support.
51
Inspecting JVM code
javac Factorial.java javap -c -verbose
Factorial Compiled from Factorial.java public
class Factorial extends java.lang.Object
public Factorial() / Stack1, Locals1,
Args_size1 / public int fac(int)
/ Stack2, Locals4, Args_size2 / Method
Factorial() 0 aload_0 1 invokespecial 1
ltMethod java.lang.Object()gt 4 return
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Inspecting JVM Code ...
// address 0 1 2
3 Method int fac(int) // stack this n result i
0 iconst_1 // stack this n result i 1
1 istore_2 // stack this n result i
2 iconst_2 // stack this n result
i 2 3 istore_3 // stack this n
result i 4 goto 14 7 iload_2 //
stack this n result i result 8 iload_3
// stack this n result i result i 9 imul
// stack this n result i result i 10
istore_2 11 iinc 3 1 14 iload_3 //
stack this n result i i 15 iload_1 //
stack this n result i i n 16 if_icmple 7 //
stack this n result i 19 iload_2 //
stack this n result i result 20 ireturn

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Code improvement (optimization)

• The code generated by our compiler is not
  efficient
• It computes values at runtime that could be known
  at compile time
• It computes values more times than necessary
• We can do better!
• Constant folding
• Common sub-expression elimination
• Code motion
• Dead code elimination

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Optimization implementation

• Is the optimization correct or safe?
• Is the optimization an improvement?
• What sort of analyses do we need to perform to
  get the required information?
• Local
• Global

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Concurrency, distributed computing, the Internet

• Traditional view
• Let the OS deal with this
• gt It is not a programming language issue!
• End of Lecture
• Wait-a-minute
• Maybe the traditional view is getting out of
  date?

56
Concurrency and programming Languages

• Library view
• All(most all) concurrency constructs are packaged
  as library functions/methods
• FORTRAN, C, Lisp, CML, Java (except for a few
  keywords like synchronized)
• Language view
• Syntactic manifestation in the language
• Concurrent Pascal
• Occam
• ADA
• Facile
• Erlang

57
What could languages provide?

• Abstract model of system
• abstract machine gt abstract system
• Example high-level constructs
• Process as the value of an expression
• Pass processes to functions
• Create processes at the result of function call
• Communication abstractions
• Synchronous communication
• Buffered asynchronous channels that preserve msg
  order
• Mutual exclusion, atomicity primitives
• Most concurrent languages provide some form of
  locking
• Atomicity is more complicated, less commonly
  provided

58
Programming Language Life cycle

• The requirements for the new language are
  identified
• The language syntax and semantics is designed
• BNF or EBNF, experiments with front-end tools
• Informal or formal Semantic
• An informal or formal specification is developed
• Initial implementation
• Prototype via interpreter or interpretive
  compiler
• Language tested by designers, implementers and a
  few friends
• Feedback on the design and possible
  reconsiderations
• Improved implementation

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Programming Language Life cycle
Design
Specification
Prototype
Compiler
Manuals, Textbooks
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Programming Language Life cycle

• Lots of research papers
• Conferences session dedicated to new language
• Text books and manuals
• Used in large applications
• Huge international user community
• Dedicated conference
• International standardisation efforts
• Industry defacto standard
• Programs written in the languages becomes legacy
  code
• Language enters hall-of-fame and features are
  taught in CS course on Programming Language
  Design and Implementation

61
The Most Important Open Problem in Computing

• Increasing Programmer Productivity
• Write programs correctly
• Write programs quickly
• Write programs easily
• Why?
• Decreases support cost
• Decreases development cost
• Decreases time to market
• Increases satisfaction

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Why Programming Languages?

• 3 ways of increasing programmer productivity
• Process (software engineering)
• Controlling programmers
• Tools (verification, static analysis, program
  generation)
• Important, but generally of narrow applicability
• Language design --- the center of the universe!
• Core abstractions, mechanisms, services,
  guarantees
• Affect how programmers approach a task (C vs.
  SML)
• Multi-paradigm integration

63
Programming Languages and Compilers are at the
core of Computing
All software is written in a programming
language Learning about compilers will teach you
a lot about the programming languages you already
know. Compilers are big therefore you need to
apply all you knowledge of software
engineering. The compiler is the program from
which all other programs arise.
64
New Programming Language! Why Should I Care?

• The problem is not designing a new language
• Its easy! Thousands of languages have been
  developed
• The problem is how to get wide adoption of the
  new language
• Its hard! Challenges include
• Competition
• Usefulness
• Interoperability
• Fear
• Its a good idea, but its a new idea
  therefore, I fear it and must reject it. ---
  Homer Simpson
• The financial rewards are low, but

65
Famous Danish Computer Scientists

• Peter Nauer
• BNF and Algol
• Per Brinck Hansen
• Monitors and Concurrent Pascal
• Dines Bjorner
• VDM and ADA
• Bjarne Straustrup
• C
• Mads Tofte
• SML
• Rasmus Lerdorf
• PhP
• Anders Hejlsberg
• Turbo Pascal and C
• Jacob Nielsen

66
Finally
Keep in mind, the compiler is the program from
which all other programs arise. If your compiler
is under par, all programs created by the
compiler will also be under par. No matter the
purpose or use -- your own enlightenment about
compilers or commercial applications -- you want
to be patient and do a good job with this
program in other words, don't try to throw this
together on a weekend. Asking a computer
programmer to tell you how to write a compiler is
like saying to Picasso, "Teach me to paint like
you." Sigh Well, Picasso tried.
67
What I promised you at the start of the course

• Ideas, principles and techniques to help you
• Design your own programming language or design
  your own extensions to an existing language
• Tools and techniques to implement a compiler or
  an interpreter
• Lots of knowledge about programming

I hope you feel you got what I promised