5. Haggai, Zechariah

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5. Haggai, Zechariah Malachi

• BOT535 Postexilic History Literature

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Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• A. First Edition
• 1. Hosea, Amos, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah and
  Obadiah.
• 2. "The cultural setting for such a production
  would have been the preaching and liturgical
  prayers as developed in the assemblies of the
  Jews in exile. The mood in such gatherings varied
  from resigned acceptance and regret in the early
  years to hope and determination, even optimism,
  as time went by." Collins, The Mantle of Elijah
  The Redaction Criticism of the Prophetical Books,
  62
• 3. Dated between 587-538 BCE

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Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• B. Second Edition
• 1. Haggai, Zechariah (1-8) Zephaniah expansion
  (3.9-20), Jonah and possibly Joel
• 2. "It was especially aimed at maintaining
  enthusiasm for the great undertaking, which was
  apparently in danger of being bogged down in
  frustration and apathy. The setting for these
  developments was presumably that of the prayers
  and reflections associated with religious
  gatherings, but by this time these were located
  firmly around the temple construction in
  Jerusalem." Collins, ibid., 63
• 3. Dated Between 520-515 BCE

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Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• C. Third Edition
• a. Joel (if not already included), Habakkuk
  (which had its own redactional history), Malachi
  and some "eschatological additions to other
  sections especially Zephaniah.
• b. "Reading between the lines of the various
  biblical texts relevant to this period
  (especially Malachi), we get the impression that
  enthusiasm for the religious aspects of the
  restored national life had become the faith of a
  minority who increasingly thought of themselves
  as a beleaguered band of the righteous in the
  midst of a nation of unfaithful sinners. Hope in

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Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• the future became combined with pessimism about
  the present and produced a king of
  "eschatological" thinking, which affected The
  Twelve.... The result was further revision of the
  book that was more agonizingly introspective in
  its questions, more wildly optimistic in it
  visions of the future and more bitterly resentful
  of the enemy within and without." Collins,
  ibid., 64
• c. Dated middle of the fifth century BCE

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Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• D. Final Edition
• Zechariah 9-14 and the appendices to Malachi
  (Mal. 4.4-6).

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Theology of the Redacted Twelve

• "The principal themes of the whole book are those
  of covenant-election, fidelity and infidelity,
  fertility and infertility, turning and returning,
  the justice of God and the mercy of God, the
  kingship of God, the place of his dwelling
  (Temple / Mt. Zion), the nations as enemies, the
  nations as allies. For the post-exilic audience
  the message of The Twelve was primarily
  theological. At the same time the book also
  embodies a strongly political and ideological
  element in its vision of the future the ideal
  Israel is to be the restored Judah, a
  religious-political state in which all citizens
  will recognize the authority of the Lord, live
  according to his Law and give priority to the
  right and acceptable

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Theology of the Redacted Twelve

• worship of the Lord in his temple in the holy
  city free from all defilement. The book is
  ambiguous in its international views, especially
  as to whether or not the nations will ever attain
  sufficient freedom from defilement to permit them
  to participate in this religious-political
  system, but any role envisioned for the nations
  in The Twelve is definitely subordinate."
• Terence Collins. The Scroll of the Twelve,
  The Mantel of Elijah The Redaction Criticism of
  the Prophetical Books, Sheffield Academic Press,
  1993, 65

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Theology of the Redacted Twelve

• It appears that the books are ordered as they
  are so that the main points of the prophetic
  message will be highlighted. In fact, the Twelve
  are structured in a way that demonstrates that
  the sin of Israel and the nations, the punishment
  of the sin, and the restoration of both from that
  sin. These three emphases represent the heart of
  the content of the prophetic genre. The Twelves
  external structure therefore reflects its
  literary type.
• Paul R. House. The Unity of The Twelve,
  Sheffield, The Almond Press, 1990, 68

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Principles of Organization Hosea

• A. Hos 1-3
• 1. Chapters 1-3 were fashioned into a unit,
  possibly at an early stage in the transmission of
  the poetry, and were positioned as an opening to
  the Hosea collection. In this way they function
  as an introduction to Hosea and provided a
  guideline for its interpretation. However, the
  placing of Hosea at the beginning of a larger
  book gave these chapters a new role. They now
  function as an introduction to The Twelve, which
  presents a great panoramic survey of Old
  Testament prophecy up to its official finishing
  line shortly before the time of Ezra. Collins,
  ibid., 66

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Principles of Organization Hosea

• 2. "The story in Hos 1-3 is one of election,
  infidelity and rejection but also of restoration
  after punishment. As such it is a summary of the
  message of The Twelve, not just the Hosean part
  of it." Collins, ibid., 66
• 3. Collins argues that the Hosea marriage story
  was intended to symbolize the northern kingdom,
  but via 1.7 and 1.10-11 it included both Judah
  and Israel. The paralleling of marital
  relationships and religious covenant
  relationships envelopes the Twelve The
  interesting thing is that we find an echo of this
  same imagery at the end of the book in Mal
  2.13-16, which calls for faithfulness to the
  covenant between you and the wife of your
  youth. Collins, ibid., 66

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Principles of Organization Hosea

• B. Hos 4-14
• 1. Hos 9.10-14.8 are about turning and returning,
  a theme that was first developed in Hos 2.15-3.5.
  Sinful Israel called to repentance and offered
  forgiveness and healing by a loving and merciful
  God (Hos 11.8-9 2.14-15). Collins, ibid., 67
• 2. Promise of restoration with rich vegetation
  14.5 after destruction of vegetation in 2.9-13.
• 3. Hos 14.1-3 uses liturgical language

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Principles of Organization Joel

• B. Joel
• 1. Joel continues the promise of blessing in
  vegetation terms. Locust, etc. destroy it (Joel
  1.8, 13 2.15-16) and this is lamented
  liturgically in 2.17. This destruction of
  vegetation of the reversal of the end of Hosea
  and a return to Hos 2 4.1-3. Note the words
  grain, the wine and the oil (Joel 1.10, Hos
  2.22).
• 2. Animals are dismayed in both Hos 4.3 and Joel
  1.18.

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Principles of Organization Joel

• 3. The juxtaposition produces some interesting
  effects, not the least of which is the way the
  older, pre-exilic material of Hosea is redirected
  towards a post-exilic setting through its
  association with the later material of Joel. In
  this new setting considerable emphasis is placed
  on the Jerusalem temple as the location for
  liturgical repentance and penance, so that the
  poetry of Hosea is effectively absorbed into the
  cultic activity of the restored temple.
  Collins, ibid., 68

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Principles of Organization Joel

• 4. Liturgical thrust of Joel the prayers, Joel
  2.17 the answer, Joel 2.18-19ff. (note Hos
  2.21-23).
• 4.01 Happy ending of Joel is like Hosea barren
  becomes fruitful, Joel 3.18, but the Temple is
  the source of the blessing!! (1.13-16 2.15-17
  2.23 2.32 3.16-21)
• 4.02 The temple is the place where the Lord
  dwells, the center of his reassuring presence
  among his people, the holy mountain from which
  life-giving waters flow. Collins, ibid., 68

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Principles of Organization Joel

• 4.03 The connection of Joel 3.16 with Amos 1.2 is
  based on the Zion / Jerusalem roaring of the
  LORD. Also Joel 3.18a and Amos 9.13c the
  mountains shall drip sweet honey.

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Principles of Organization Amos

• A. Connections with Joel
• 1. . . . the dire threats against Israel which
  dominate Amos are softened when read in the light
  of the more optimistic ending of Joel. This,
  however, is a feature which is peculiar to the
  version of The Twelve as found in the Hebrew
  Bible. The idea that it is the result of
  deliberate choice on somebodys part is supported
  by the fact that Greek version does not follow
  the same order but instead places Joel after
  Micah. Collins, ibid., 68

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Principles of Organization Amos

• The theme of Israel and the other nations is a
  connection to Joel 3.1-3. However note The
  significant difference between the two passages
  lies in the fact that, for Amos, the judgment on
  the nations is a prelude to the condemnation of
  Judah and Israel, 2.4ff, whereas in Joel 3 the
  condemnation of the nations is to be a prelude to
  the restoration of the fortunes of Judah and
  Israel. The condemnation of Israel in Amos has
  once again been pre-empted by the more hopeful
  vision of Joel, so that in literary terms the
  force of the blow is softened. Everything is seen
  from a post-exilic viewpoint, and the broader
  context of The Twelve envisages the state of
  affairs after the punishments predicted in Amos
  have been inflicted on Israel and Judah.
  Collins, ibid., 69

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Principles of Organization Amos

• B. Covenant Election The theme of Israel among
  the nations is inevitably linked with the idea of
  covenant election. In Amos this idea is given a
  dark interpretation as something that will count
  to Israels disadvantage when it is judged
  alongside the rest (Amos 3.1 3.9-10 6.2 9.7).
  However, the rejection of Israel which is the
  main burden in Amos is counteracted by the
  forgiveness and restoration which precedes it in
  Joel and even before that in Hosea (esp. Hos
  11.1-4). Collins, ibid., 69
• C. Amos happy ending, 9.8, 9-10, 11-12, 13-15.

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Principles of Organization Obadiah

• A. Connection with Amos Obadiah focuses on Edom
  which is already mentioned in Amos 1.11-12, and
  especially in the closing 9.12 (note Joel 3.19).
  Edoms guilt is put in the context of strangers
  and foreigners (Oba 11, 15).
• B. Day of Lord The theme of the day of the Lord
  begins, as far as The Twelve is concerned, in
  Joel 2.1-2, and it is continued in Amos 5.18
  where it is used to convey the idea of a day of
  judgment for Israel. The threat against Israel in
  Amos is counteracted in Obadiah 15ff. which
  anticipates

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Principles of Organization Obadiah

• Gods judgment of the nations and the exaltation
  of Jerusalem to a position of domination not only
  over Edom but also over Philistia, Samaria,
  Gilead, Phoenicia and the Negeb. The conclusion
  of Obadiah thus parallels that of Joel. In
  particular, we can point to the way in which the
  hope of Jerusalem expressed in Oba 21, saviors
  shall go up to Mount Zion to rule Mount Esau and
  the kingdom shall be the Lords matches that of
  Joel 3.20-21.... Collins, Ibid., 70

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Principles of Organization Jonah

• A. Connections
• 1. Jonah continues to develop the theme of
  Israel and the nations Collins, ibid., 70-71
  Amos 9.7 and Jon 4.11 argues for the other
  nations being recipients of Gods care and mercy.
• 2. Its contribution comes both from the ideas it
  embodies and from its position after Obadiah to
  which it acts as a counterfoil in its attitude to
  the nations. Collins, ibid., 72

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Principles of Organization Jonah

• B. The Jonah story emphasizes the themes of
  repentance and forgiveness. It is intended to
  illustrate, among other things, the theological
  view that the Lord is a gracious God and
  merciful, slow to anger and abounding in
  steadfast love who repents of evil (Jon 4.2 cf.
  Exod 34.6 Num 14.18), and that consequently the
  exile could not be attributed to any
  unjustifiable impatience on Gods part. Thus the
  Jonah story makes an important contribution to
  the theodicy which is a major element in The
  Twelve. Collins, ibid., 71

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Principles of Organization Jonah

• C. The prayer in Jon 2 influences the message of
  The Twelve. Also that the power of God is not
  limited geographically. This universalism is a
  major element in the overall message of The
  Twelve. Collins, ibid., 71
• a. Fasting and prayer in Jon 3.5 gt Joel 1.13-14
  2.15-16 even animals (Jon 3.7-8 Joel 1.20).
• b. Turn from evil Jon 3.10 Hos 11.8-9 Jon 4.11.

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Principles of Organization Micah

• A. In Micah the pendulum swings back to a
  preoccupation with the sins of Israel, but now
  the condemnations are specifically directed
  against Jerusalem and the sins of its
  inhabitants, especially the corrupt and
  oppressive rulers. Thus Micah marks a sharpening
  of the focus in the progression of The Twelve
  towards the explicit concern with Jerusalem and
  its temple which is one of the main features of
  the book. Collins, ibid., 72

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Principles of Organization Micah

• 1. Mic 3.12 a prediction of the destruction of
  the Temple
• 2. Mic 4.1-4 (Isa 2.2-4) a prediction of its
  restoration.
• 3. Mic 1.2 . . . from his holy Temple.

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Principles of Organization Micah

• B. Divine Theophany Mic 1.3ff. first in Amos
  4.13 5.8-9 9.5. Micahs move from threatening
  presence to consolation in Mic 7.14-20 with the
  nations seeing and being ashamed (Mic 7.15-16).
• C. Mic 7.18-20 ends positively like Jon 4.11 with
  echoes of Gods compassion.

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Principles of Organization Nahum

• A. Connection . . . Nahum . . . returns to the
  menacing aspect of the expected theophany and a
  stress on the Lords jealousy, anger and
  vengeance (Nah 1.2-5). Collins, ibid., 73
• B. Theophany
• 1. Becomes apocalyptic in terms of dealing with
  the destruction of evil itself and therefore
  brings a happy future for Judah and its temple.
  (Nah 1.15)
• 2. The triumphalism of Nahum, i.e., the
  destruction of the wicked and the triumph of good
  over evil is brought into question in Habakkuk.

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Principles of Organization Nahum

• C. Nahum deals primarily with the theme of
  Israel and the nations epitomized in Nineveh,
  which is pictured in a way very different from
  the presentation of the repentant and pardoned
  Nineveh seen in Jonah.... The name Nineveh has
  been turned into a symbol of all that is opposed
  to God, the Lords enemies who in their arrogance
  have raised themselves up against the Lord and
  his chosen ones. This is made explicit in the
  opening lines, The Lord takes vengeance on his
  adversaries and keeps wrath for his enemies (Nah
  1.2). Thus Nahum (along with Obadiah, Jonah,
  Zephaniah 1.17-2.15, Joel 2.30-3.21, Amos
  1.3-2.3) functions in the same way as the Oracles
  on the Foreign Nations in Isaiah and the other
  prophetical books. Collins, ibid., 73

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Principles of Organization Habakkuk

• A. Connections
• 1. Hab 1.2-4, 12-13 contrasts with the
  triumphalism of Nahum.
• 2. It is the thematic relationships as much as
  any historical considerations that have
  determined the positioning of Habakkuk in between
  Nahum and Zephaniah. At this point theodicy comes
  to the fore as a major concern in The Twelve, and
  in the question How long? a common chord is
  struck with some of the psalms of complaint (for
  example, Ps 13.1-2), and with the problem of
  Gods silence in Job. Collins, ibid., 74

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Principles of Organization Habakkuk

• B. Theodicy
• 1. The question of the delay in the fulfillment
  of predictions is a central theological problem
  for biblical prophecy.... The answer which
  Habakkuk supplies to the question of the delay in
  fulfillment is that the righteous must persevere
  in patience, sure in the faith that the vision of
  the triumph of good over evil will be realized in
  Gods own time... (Hab 2.3). Collins, ibid.,
  74-75 i.e., faith in God is the answer.

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Principles of Organization Habakkuk

• 2. N.B. the use of the Theophany in Hab 3.3-16
  Nah 1.3ff.
• 3. The new element lies in the insistence that
  faith can and should be maintained even in the
  face of a complete lack of any fulfillment of the
  material prosperity (the grain, the wine, the
  oil) traditionally associated with the promises
  about future salvation. Collins, ibid., 75
  N.B. Hab 3.17.
• 4. In the arrangement of The Twelve the patience
  advocated in Habakkuk is given its reward in the
  eschatological judgment scenes of the following
  Zephaniah collection. Collins, ibid., 76

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Principles of Organization Zephaniah

• A. Connection
• 1. Zephaniah tales the judgment of Judahs sins
  and gives it a universalistic spin. Therefore
  judgment is a cosmic judgment like Gen 6.5-8
  (Zeph 1.4-13).
• 2. Zeph 2-3, an Oracles against the Foreign
  Nations will surprisingly include Jerusalem as
  the oppressing city (see Mic 4.11-12 Joel
  3.11-14).
• B. Happy ending Zeph 3.9-13 looks forward to
  signs of a new life and the song of rejoicing
  (Zeph 3.14-20) tops it off.

34
Principles of Organization Zephaniah

• C. Temple They Zeph 3.9-20 give the fullest
  expression to a theme that has been regularly
  present throughout preceding sections, namely,
  the central role of the temple in the vision of
  the future. The importance of Jerusalem lies in
  the fact that it is the location of the temple,
  the house in which the Lord has chosen to dwell
  (see also Joel 1.9 1.14 2.27 3.16-17 3.21
  Amos 1.2 Oba 21 Mic 4.2 4.7 Hab 2.20 Zeph
  3.5). The glorious future predicted for Mount
  Zion as the center of life for all nations is
  only possible because it can be said of
  Jerusalem, The Lord, your God, is in your midst
  (Zeph 3.17). The central importance of the temple
  is

35
Principles of Organization Zephaniah

• thus further established as a keynote in the
  composition of The Twelve, and the ground is
  prepared for the three closing sections (Haggai,
  Zechariah, Malachi), which are primarily
  concerned with the rebuilding of the temple and
  the proper conduct of those chosen to act as its
  custodians. Collins, ibid., 77

36
Principles of Organization Haggai

• Temple
• 1. The main thrust of the Haggai collection lies
  in the assertion that the key to the future of
  Jerusalem is to be found in it status as the
  location of the Temple.... In a nutshell no
  temple, no people, no future. Thus the starting
  points for Haggai are the twin facts that the
  material blessings of the grain, the wine and the
  oil are lacking (Hag 1.11) and that the temple
  has not yet been restored. Collins, ibid., 77

37
Principles of Organization Haggai

• 2. When the temple is rebuilt then... (Hag
  2.6-7). Only after the Temples rebuilding will
  the issue of the establishment of a Zerubbabel as
  messiah come into play (Hag 2.20-23).

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Principles of Organization Zechariah

• A. Temple
• 1. Rebuilding Zech 1.16 2.11 4.9
• 2. The point of view adopted in Zechariah
  maintains that the exile will not be truly over
  until the temple has been rebuilt. Collins,
  ibid., 80
• 3. Zech 8 gives the same message in sermon style.

39
Principles of Organization Zechariah

• B. Starting to Summarize and Conclude The Twelve
• 1. Zech 1.2-6 history of prophecy.... The
  composite picture presents the prophets as
  servants of God (Amos 3.7), sent by him (Hos
  12.10 Amos 2.11) with a mission to prophesy
  (Amos 5.15), to rebuke (Hos 6.5 Jon 1.2 Mic
  3.8), to predict disaster (Jon 3.4), and to guide
  and preserve the people (Hos 12.13). Like Moses
  they are filled with the power of Gods spirit
  (Mic 3.8), but must face mockery and hatred (Hos
  9.7-8) and peoples attempts to silence them
  (Amos 2.12 7.13 Mic 2.6). When they are well

40
Principles of Organization Zechariah

• received and obeyed as Gods messengers (Hag
  1.12) the result will be prosperity and all kinds
  of blessings in a new world in which all will be
  filled with the power to prophesy (Joel 2.28).
  This composite picture has much in common with
  the Deuteronomist understanding of prophets and
  their role in the history of Israel. Collins,
  ibid., 78

41
Principles of Organization Zechariah

• 1. Zech 1.7-17 gives a cosmic view of Gods
  governance of the world. Zech 6 has the four
  chariots patrolling the earth.... Zech 7 then
  turns to a historical survey.... (former
  prophets Zech 7.7-12).
• C. Zech 9-14 This new ending gives both Zech and
  The Twelve a more futuristic outlook than they
  would otherwise possess.

42
Principles of Organization Malachi

• A. The Malachi collection also comes as an
  appendix to Zech 1-8. It was probably attached to
  Zech 8 long before 9-14 were composed, and it
  became separated when that section was
  inserted.... Throughout Malachi there is a strong
  sense of Israels election as Gods people, bound
  to his service in a covenant relationship. The
  tone is set by Mal 1.2, I have loved you, and
  it is continued in 2.5ff. 3.1 and elsewhere in
  language very reminiscent of Deuteronomy....
  Collins, ibid., 81

43
Principles of Organization Malachi

• B. The main point of Malachi is an idea that has
  been developed throughout The Twelve, namely,
  that Jerusalem is a holy city, destined to be the
  world center of a universal worship of the Lord
  by all the nations. According to Malachi, the
  fulfillment of this ideal is still impeded by the
  unworthy behavior of the priests in the temple,
  the very place where Gods name should be honored
  most. Collins, ibid., 81

44
Principles of Organization Malachi

• C. ...Malachi also brings us back to the themes
  and languages which were dominant at the very
  start of The Twelve. This is evident in the use
  of the father-son relationship as an image of the
  relationship between God and Israel (Mal 1.6-7
  and Hos 11.1-1), and in the fact that both appeal
  to the need for covenant faithfulness in
  marriage, though in slightly different ways (Mal
  2.13-16 and Hos 2.14-19). Collins, ibid., 81

45
Principles of Organization Malachi

• D. Mal 4.2-3 The effect of giving the book such
  an ending was that the whole weight of the
  assembled twelve prophets were harnessed and
  redirected towards sustaining the faith and
  religious fervor of the God-fearing minority in
  Judah during the decades before the arrival of
  Nehemiah and Ezra. Indeed the book of The Twelve
  can be said to have played its part in preparing
  the ground for the success of Ezras reforms in
  so far as it provided a source of inspiration to
  those who spoke with one another and put their
  names to the religious pact which seems to be
  referred to in Mal 3.16. Collins, ibid., 83

46
Principles of Organization Malachi

• E. The End One of the implicit purposes behind
  the production of The Twelve was to use the
  prophets in support of the call to stricter
  observance of the Law. This is made explicitly in
  the closing verses of Malachi, which probably
  date from the time of Ezra, Remember the law of
  my servant Moses, the statutes and ordinances
  that I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel
  (Mal 4.4). Collins, ibid., 84

47
Haggai Introduction

• "The tenth book in the Masoretic ordering of the
  Book of the Twelve (or the Minor Prophets). It
  contains oracles alluding to the harsh
  socio-economic conditions that dominated the tiny
  province of Yehud (Judah) during the reign of
  Darius I. Two factors had influence Judean
  identity at this time the Persian mandate to
  rebuild the temple, and the dyarchic structure of
  governor and high priest approved by the Persian
  authorities. The temple still lay in ruins when
  Haggai began to prophesy on 29 August 520 B.C.E.
  (Hag 1.1) but enormous progress had been made by
  the time he concluded his

48
Haggai Introduction

• brief ministry, some three and a half months
  later, on 18 December 520 (Hag 2.10, 20). The
  book of Haggai itself provides vivid testimony to
  the effect of the prophet's words on the people
  as they began the task of rebuilding the temple
  (Hag 1.12-13), supplementing the cursory notes
  provided by Ezra (5.1 6.14)." Meyers, Carol and
  Eric M. Meyers, "Book of Haggai," ABD, III, 20

49
Haggai Historical Background

• A "It is clear from the biblical record that the
  First Return encountered such political
  difficulties, and also that it failed to restore
  the temple. The mission of Sheshbazzar did not
  succeed, possibly because as the "first"
  governor, Sheshbazzar did not possess the same
  power as did Zerubbabel and his successors. The
  mission could have failed also because it took
  place so long before there organization of the
  provinces by Darius. Before Darius's
  implementation of the satrapal system, sufficient
  financial support for such an enterprise may have
  been impossible. A lack of tax revenues in an
  impoverished Palestine would have greatly altered
  the effects of Sheshbazzar's visit." Meyers,
  Haggai and Zechariah 1-8 The Anchor Bible, xxxiv

50
Haggai Historical Background

• B. "Stronger contingents of people returning from
  Babylonian exile were needed before the
  rebuilding which Cyrus had made possible could be
  carried out. These larger groups of home comers
  probably arrived during the second half of the
  reign of Cyrus's son Cambyses, no doubt in
  connection with his Egyptian campaigns (525-522)
  or they may have come during the transition to
  Darius's rule in 522-521. They were led by
  Zerubbabel, who had been appointed governor of
  Judah (Hag 1.1, 12, 14 2.2, 21, 23 cf. Ezra
  2.2).This offered prophets like Haggai a new
  chance to spur the people on. Hope for the
  rebuilding of the temple flickered up once more."
  Wolff, Haggai A Commentary, 15

51
Haggai Historical Background
52
Haggai Historical Background

• "The date formulas in Haggai, unlike comparable
  material in Kings, Chronicles, or other prophets,
  are tied to the realm of a foreign power. As
  such, they indicate the extent to which Judean
  policies and thinking were geared towards Persia.
  They also suggest prophetic awareness of the
  imminent conclusion of the 70 year period of
  desolation referred to in Jeremiah (Jer 25.11-12
  29.10), Reckoned from the destruction of the
  First Temple in 587-586, the approaching year
  517-516 apparently signaled a new era for Judah.
  This careful reckoning of dates is unique in
  prophecy and accentuates Haggai's views regarding
  Yahweh's

53
Haggai Historical Background

• purposeful control over history. The date
  formulas, which mirror each other by virtue of
  the chiastic arrangement of year-day-month
  language, also constitute another literary device
  by which the overall unity of Haggai and First
  Zechariah is established." Meyers, ABD, III, 21

54
Haggai as a Prophet

• A. "Actually, very little is known about Haggai.
  He was a contemporary of Zechariah (Ezra 51),
  and largely through the work of these two
  prophets the temple was rebuilt (614). On the
  basis of Hag. 23 some have supposed that Haggai
  had seen the former temple, but the verse will
  not support this interpretation. More likely is
  the tradition from Epiphanius that he was young
  man who had returned from Babylon with
  Sheshbazzar. His name, which may be compared with
  Lat. Festus or Gk. Hilary, suggest that he was
  born on one of the Israelite festivals (Heb.
  hag)." Bush, LaSor, Hubbard, Old Testament
  Survey, 482

55
Haggai as a Prophet

• B. "There is only one person in the Old Testament
  called Haggai.... Haggai was a favorite name in
  the Old Testament world. We have evidence of this
  from Hebrew seals, Aramaic sources, and also
  Akkadian and Egyptian parallels. The reason why
  the name was so widespread was its meaning to be
  born on a feast day (gx) counted as a good omen.
  the name echoes the rejoicing over the child's
  birth "My feast-day's joy!"." Wolff, ibid., 16

56
Haggai as a Prophet

• A. Cult Prophet
• 1. "The most energetic champion of the temple
  party's cause known to us through the surviving
  literature was Haggai." Haggai's oracles
  "comprise a powerful propaganda piece for the
  official restoration program presided over by
  Zerubbabel and Joshua." Hanson, The Dawn of
  Apocalyptic, 173, 176

57
Haggai as a Prophet

• 2. The first transmitter of Haggai's sayings once
  emphasizes specially that he was "the messenger
  of Yahweh" (1.13), a title that it otherwise
  applied to a prophet only in Isa 44.26 and 2 Chr
  36.15f. This in itself would be reason enough to
  keep us from seeing him as "cult prophet," even
  though his zeal for rebuilding of the Jerusalem
  temple has led to his being viewed in that light.
  But what speaks against this conclusion is not
  only his frequent use of the classic
  messenger-speech formula (1.2, 5, 7, 8 2.6, 7,
  9a, 11) and the divine-oracle formula ("saying of
  Yahweh," 1.9, 13 2.8, 9, 14, 17 and three times
  in 2.4 and 2.23 respectively) he also confronts
  priestly

58
Haggai as a Prophet

• questions almost as if they are something he
  finds alien (2.11-13). On the other hand, he
  addresses the high priest with as much
  self-assurance as he does the governor (1.1, 12,
  14 2.2, 4). His exertions on behalf of the
  building of the temple are sustained by an ardent
  future expectation (2.6-9, 21f., 23). Haggai
  therefore impressed the postexilic community as
  being a prophet with extraordinary authority. And
  his confidence, firing his critical energy, led
  to success (Hag 1.12-14 Ezra 5.1f. 6.14)."
  Wolff, ibid., 17

59
Haggai as a Prophet

• B. A Priest
• ". . . on the grounds that he appealed to the
  priest to answer a question on one occasion
  (211) that he was vitally interested in
  rebuilding the temple and that his name was
  connected to some of the psalms in the ancient
  versions (LXX, 87, 145-148 Vul. 111, 145 Pesh.
  125, 126 145-148)." Smith, ibid., 147

60
Message of Haggai

• A. Effect of Haggai's Message
• "The total effect of these prophecies was to
  encourage the nation, its governor, its high
  priest, and the remnant of the people to finish
  rebuilding the temple. Known in Jewish
  terminology as 'the Second Temple,' this temple
  was never replaced by a third. The temple which
  Herod the Great rebuilt in the days of Jesus was
  considered to be simply a refurbishing." Bush,
  LaSor, Hubbard, Old Testament Survey, 483

61
Message of Haggai

• B. Temple Rebuilding
• ". . . the book of Haggai serves at least four
  functions
• 1. It memorializes a major cultural achievement,
  the rebuilding of the temple. From its
  perspective, Haggai's words provided the impetus
  whereby reconstruction was carried on.
• 2. The book highlights the role of Haggai as he
  assisted the people in dealing with the
  restoration of the temple compound - in
  initiating reconstruction, in responding to
  negative perceptions of the temple, in
  facilitating the official restoration of the
  sacrificial cultus.

62
Message of Haggai

• 3. The book provides the prospect of future weal.
  Judah is now obeying a prophet's words. Since,
  according at least to the deuteronomistic
  history, disobedience of a prophet's words
  resulted in destruction, obedience to Haggai's
  words should yield prosperity.
• 4. The temple compound, now in operation, and the
  cultus, recently reinstated, deserve the support
  of the people." Peterson, ibid., 36

63
Message of Haggai

• C. Dyarchy
• "Although Haggai's utterance were for the most
  part addressed to the whole community of Judeans,
  many of whom had only recently returned from
  Babylon (Hag 1.12 2.2). It is clear that his
  words were directed mainly toward the two
  leaders, Zerubbabel, the Davidic governor, and
  Joshua, the high priest. The province of Yehud no
  longer had a Davidic king and Zerubbabel, the
  governor, was officially in charge of the liaison
  in all matters requiring Persian attention.
  Joshua held an office of ecclesiastical authority
  that had clearly been upgraded in the restoration
  (see Zech

64
Message of Haggai

• 3.11f). The priesthood in the early postexilic
  period began to assume much of the internal
  political, economic, and judicial administration
  that previously had resided with the royal house,
  although the presence of the Davidic scion
  Zerubbabel as the governor of Yehud encouraged
  occasional eschatological outbursts that focused
  on the future role of the Davidide (Hag 2.21-23
  Zech 4.6b-10a). These future-oriented oracles
  suggest a belief among the

65
Message of Haggai

• Judeans that this dyarchic pattern was only
  temporary. The lineage of Joshua, however, was no
  less impressive than Zerubbabel's, though from a
  Persian perspective such an arrangement was
  permanent except in case of rebellion, when any
  kind of home rule would be removed. Persia's
  motives in appointing both a Davidic governor and
  a legitimate priestly officer thus cannot be
  divorced from political purposes establishing a
  loyal following in Yehud that would guarantee
  control of the major road was that skirted the
  Mediterranean and that gave Persia access to the
  W portion of its far-flung empire." Meyers, ABD,
  III, 20

66
Haggai Outline

• I. Appeal to rebuild the Temple 11-15
• A. The summons 11-11
• B. The beginning of work 112-15
• II. The glory of the temple 21-9
• III. Promise and Prediction 210-19
• A. Holiness and uncleanness 210-14
• B. A Promise for better times 215-19
• IV. A Messianic oracle about Zerubbabel 220-23

67
Kabod Theology

• A. Kabods Definitions
• 1. Primarily heaviness or weight. Ringgren, H.
  Israelite Religion, 90-91
• 2. Weighty that distinguishes a person gt Honor
  power success i.e., A heavy Person.
  Ringgren, Israelite Religion, 91
• 3. Yet with reference to YHWH usually associated
  with Light phenomena BDB
• 4. In Ezek, Ka4bod signifies the resplendent
  majesty of the divine presence. Mettinger, T.,
  The Dethronement of Sabaoth Studies in the Shem
  and Kabod Theologies, 97

68
Kabod Theology

• B. Two types of Usage of Ka4bod in Pentateuch
  (Especially in P-Material) Mettinger, ibid.,
  80ff.
• 1. Gods Presence in Judgment Ka4bod in
  conjunction with crises during Israels
  Wilderness Experience
• 1.01 Ex 167,10 Manna problem gt Murmuring
• 1.02 Num 1410(21, 22) Spy problem gt Murmuring
• 1.03 Num 1619 Korah Problem gt Murmuring
• 1.04 Num 177(1642) After Korahs death gt
  Murmuring
• 1.05 Num 206 Waters of Meribah gt Peoples
  contention with Moses

69
Kabod Theology

• 2. Gods Presence in Blessing Ka4bod in
  conjunction with Sinai and the Cult
• 2.01 Ex 2416,17 Kabod settles on Sinai
• 2.02 Ex 2943 Kabod will sanctify the Tabernacle
• 2.03 Ex 4034,35 Kabod fills Sanctuary
• 2.04 Lev 96, 23 Aarons first sacrifice

70
Kabod Theology

• C. Significant Texts
• 1. Exod 33.18-23
• 2. Exod 29.43 / 40.34, 35 (N.B. 1 Kgs 8.11)
• 3. Ezek 8-11 43.1-5
• 3.01 84 At the North Gate
• 3.02 93 From the Cherub (sg) to the threshold to
  speak with the man in linen.
• 3.03 104 From the Cherub (pl) to the threshold
• 3.04 1018 Return to the Cherub (pl)
• 3.05 1019 Cherubim move to East Gate
• 3.06 1122 Above the Cherubim
• 3.07 1123 Leaves Jerusalem and stations itself
  on the Mount of Olives just east of the city.

71
Zechariah Introduction

• A. Length Longest of the Minor Prophets (211
  verses, while Hos. has 197)
• B. Obscurity "At the beginning of the fifth
  century AD Jerome called Zechariah the obscurest
  and longest of the twelve prophets. In the Middle
  Ages two Jewish scholars called attention to the
  obscurity of this book. Arabanel (d. 1508) said,
  The prophecies of Zechariah are so obscure that
  no expositors however skilled have found their
  hands in the explanation and Solomon ben Isaac,
  better known as Rashi (1040-1105) said, 'The
  prophecy is very abstruse, for it contains
  visions resembling dreams which want
  interpreting and we shall never be able to
  discover the true interpretation until the
  teacher of righteousness arrives.'" Smith, R. L.
  Word Biblical Commentary Micah-Malachi, 166-167

72
Zechariah as a Prophet

• 1. The name Zechariah probably means, 'Yahweh
  remembers.' It is a common name in the OT,
  especially among the priests and Levites in the
  post-exilic period. Smith, ibid., 167
• 2. Statements in Neh 12.4, 10, 16, suggest that
  Zechariah was a priest or a Levite and that he
  became the head of the house of Iddo in his later
  life. However it is not certain that the
  Zechariah in Neh 12 is the same as the prophet in
  the book of Zechariah. Yet it seems evident that
  Zechariah the prophet, like Ezekiel, was from a
  priestly family and was also called to be a
  prophet. Smith, ibid., 168

73
Multiple Authorship Arguments

• 1. Preexilic authorship for chaps. 9-14. This
  may have originated because 11.12f. is quoted in
  Matt. 27.9f. as a prophecy of Jeremiah. The
  mention of Ephraim, of Assyria and Egypt as its
  enemies, of Aramean city-states and Philistine
  cities all suggest a preexilic date. However, the
  evidence is not uniform, part dating from before
  Tiglath-Pilesers conquest of the Aramean states
  and portions of Israel, part suggesting a time
  just before the fall of Samaria, and part
  referring only to Judah and seeming to look back
  on Josiahs death. As a result, scholarship has
  become fragmented, with some dating chaps. 9-11
  and 13.7-9 before 721 and the balance of chaps.
  12-14 before 586. Although B. Otzen defends the
  preexilic date of chaps. 9-10, the preexilic
  theory has little support today. LaSor, Hubbard
  Bush, ibid., 492

74
Multiple Authorship Arguments

• 2. Post-Zechariah authorship of chaps 9-14. Some
  assign these chapters to a single author, but
  against the view is fragmented. Eissfeldt prefers
  the year 332, if only because the allusion is to
  be found here (v. 3) to the rampart heaped up by
  Tyre, and more precisely to the period of this
  year when Alexander made preparations for the
  siege of Tyre. K. Marti and E. Sellin identify
  the shepherds of 9.8 as Lysimachus, Jason, and
  Menelaus or Simon, Menelaus, and Lysimachus,
  thus bringing the date down to Maccabean times
  (ca. 160). Further, 11.4-17 is taken as
  reflecting events of the Maccabean war the man
  who is killed in 12.10-14 is Onias III (murdered
  in 170 Sellin) or Simon (134 B. Duhm). LaSor,
  Hubbard Bush, ibid., 492

75
Multiple Authorship Arguments

• 3. Two or more authors for chaps. 9-14, rather
  than a single Deutero-Zechariah. R. C. Dentan
  dates 9.1-12 to the siege of Tyre by Alexander
  (332) vv. 13-17 in the period of the Diadochoi
  or Ptolemaic rule, 10.3-12 in the period when the
  Ptolemies ruled over Palestine. He rejects a
  Maccabean date based on the mention of the Book
  of the Twelve in Ben Sirachs apocryphal book of
  Ecclesiasticus (49.10 ca. 190) It is hardly
  possible that any extensive additions could have
  been made to this collection after the book had
  attained what was evidently canonical status.
  LaSor, Hubbard Bush, ibid., 492

76
Single Authorship Arguments

• Among the various theories in defense of single
  authorship, Archer holds to a date between 480
  and 470 for chaps. 9-14, and accounts for the
  differences in style to the three or four decades
  that separate the two parts of the prophecy.
  Particularly strong is his argument that the
  language throughout is more in keeping with that
  of Haggai and Malachi than with the
  second-century writings from Qumran, and
  remarkably free of Aramaisms. S. Bullough
  maintains that the vision or dream writing of
  the first part, with all its hopes in a new era,
  is the work of a young man (of about thirty) in
  530-518), while the more forbidding and remotely
  hopeful prophecies of the second part are the
  work of an older man (of about seventy), when the
  future of the Persian Empire had become less
  secure. He explains the difference in style and
  treatment between the two parts by the difference
  in the authors age and the changing political
  circumstances. LaSor, Hubbard Bush, ibid.,
  493

77
The Message of Zechariah

• A. Theology of the Second Temple
• 1. ". . . it is significant that each of the
  passages in question centers on the construction
  of the Temple (416 615 214-16). This is also
  central to the night vision Zechariahs vocation
  is to publish the news that Yahweh has returned
  to build his house in Jerusalem (16). Further
  corroboration can be found in the role tradition
  ascribes to Zechariah he and Haggai were
  sustainers of the Temples builders (Ezra
  51-3). Thus the oracular material associated
  with Zechariahs vision, together with what
  little is known of its background, establishes a
  reasonable presupposition that the composition as
  a whole deals with the foundation of the Second
  Temple." Halpern, The Ritual Background of
  Zechariahs Temple Song, CBQ, 40, 1978, p. 168-9

78
The Message of Zechariah

• 2. "Zechariahs night vision . . . rehearses in a
  mundane framework the ritual of Temple
  reconstruction, and, in a cosmic or visionary
  framework, extends and elaborates upon this
  rehearsal." Halpern, ibid., 180

79
The Message of Zechariah

• B. Divine Warrior Combat-Cycle
• "Zechariahs night vision, then, assumes the form
  of the combat-cycle. It begins with angels
  pleading for the oppressed and penitent
  Israelites (18-12). Yahweh promises rescue
  (112-17) and dispatches two expeditions, an
  angelic vanguard, as harbingers of his arrival
  (21-9). He calls his people to him (210-11)
  before he spoils the foe (212-13), which will
  lead to his enthronement (214-16). In council,
  he invests Joshua (31-7) and sends Zerubbabel
  against the foe (38). Zerubbabel reduces the
  unassailable mountain (46b-7), earning kingship
  (48-10a). Yahweh establishes the cosmic,
  astrological order (39-10 41-6a, 10b-14),
  executes judgment (55-11 perhaps 61-8). The
  diarchs are enthroned (69-13), and a palace for
  Yahweh is erected (615). The pattern is that of
  the Divine Warrior, a common Semitic legacy,
  refracted through the lens of Israelite culture
  and history." Halpern, ibid., 189

80
The Message of Zechariah

• C. A Theology of Restoration
• 1. "Zechariahs visions comprise the doing of
  theology. In them he is explaining why it is and
  how it is that Yahweh will right earlier
  iniquity why it is that Yahweh will be present
  in Jerusalem how it is that the communitys
  leadership will be organized how it is that the
  problem of human error will be addressed and how
  it is that the contamination of earlier sin and
  unclean existence will be expunged." Petersen,
  Zechariahs Visions A Theological Perspective,
  VT, XXXIV, 2 (1984), 200

81
The Message of Zechariah

• 2. "What Zechariah reports in these visions is
  initial restoration within the cosmic order. Once
  Yahweh had decided to act beneficently toward
  what was now Judah, there were certain processes
  which must begin, certain issues which must be
  resolved, certain decisions about community
  organization which must be broached and all this
  before humans could do the mundane work of
  restoration. What we see in the visions is the
  beginning of restoration on a cosmic plane."
  Petersen, ibid., 201-202

82
The Message of Zechariah

• 3. Zechariah re-works the Ezekiel plan for
  restoration
• 3.01 Scope Israel gt Cosmic
• 3.02 Initiation Unclear, pos. the Temple gt
  Divine decision
• 3.03 N.J definite gt without limit
• 3.04 How restored Glory of Temple gt No Limit
• 3.05 Priesthood Zadokite trad. gt spec. HP with
  cosmic rite
• 3.06 Order of P collegial activity gt HP and
  hierarchy
• 3.07 Rule nasi (?) gt Two anointed ones
• 3.08 Disorder not presupposed gt punished with
  cov. curse

83
The Message of Zechariah

• D. Apocalyptic Theology
• 1. . . . Zechariah has elements of an
  apocalypse. The prophet is given a series of
  eight night visions (1.7-6.15). The angel of
  Yahweh explains the visions, acting as mediator
  (1.13f.). The present becomes a symbol of the
  future (vv. 16f.). No direct statement indicates
  that Zechariah is given a vision of some event in
  heaven, but the reference to Joshua standing
  before the angel of the Lord, and Satan at his
  right hand to accuse him (3.1) may suggest a
  heavenly scene (cf. Job 1.6-12). Beyond doubt the
  visions were given to reveal the future,
  including the announcement of the man whose name
  is the Branch (see Jer. 23.5 33.15 see also
  Isa. 11.1), a term which become synonymous with
  Messiah. LaSor, Hubbard Bush, ibid., 494

84
The Message of Zechariah

• 2. Recent emphasis has sought to reconstruct the
  socioreligious setting of the apocalyptic
  writings. Hanson analyzes the several states
  within the hierocratic (Zadokite) circles which
  supplied the impetus for the postexilic
  restoration. The interrelationship between the
  historical situation and the language and figures
  of Scripture goes without question. La Sor,
  Hubbard Bush, ibid., 494

85
Zechariah 1-8 Outline

• 1. Superscription and first oracle 11-6
• 2. Eight night visions and oracles 17-68
• a. 1st - A man on a read horse and oracle 17-17
• b. 2nd - Four horns and four smiths 118-21
• c. 3rd - The man with a measuring line and vision
  21-13
• d. 4th - The accusation of the HP and oracles
  31-10
• e. 5th - A golden lampstand, two olive tress and
  oracles 41-14
• f. 6th - The flying scroll 51-4

86
Zechariah 1-8 Outline

• g. 7th - A woman in a ephah 55-11
• h. 8th - The chariots and the four winds 61-8
• 3. The symbolic crowning of Joshua 69-15
• 4. The question of fasting and morality 71-823
• a. The question about fasting 71-6
• b. Reiteration of the words of the Former
  Prophets 77-14
• c. A Decalogue of promises 81-23
• (1) Five brief messages of hope 81-8
• (2) A sermon including two promises and
  exhortations 89-17
• (3) Three brief messages about the future 818-23

87
Zechariah 9-14 Outline

• 1. The 1st Burden 91-1117
• a. Yahwehs kingdom in Syria, Phoenicia and
  Philistia 91-8
• b. The coming of a new king 99-10
• c. Freeing the captives 911-17
• d. A prophetic admonition 101-2
• e. Restoration of Judah and Joseph 103-12
• f. A fable-like taunt song against tyrants 111-3
• g. The shepherd rejected 114-17

88
Zechariah 9-14 Outline

• 2. The 2nd Burden 121-1421
• a. The attack on Jerusalem by the nations 121-8
• b. Weeping in Jerusalem over one they had pierced
  129-14
• c. Cleansing Jerusalem from sin, idols, and false
  prophets 131-6
• d. The smitten shepherd, a remnant spared 137-9
• e. The day of battle for Jerusalem 141-5
• f. The new Jerusalem 146-11
• g. The plague on those who war against Jerusalem
  1412-15
• h. The pilgrimage of the nations to Jerusalem
  1416-21

89
Structure of Zechariah 9

• Zechariah 9 is a paradigm example of the
  prophetic adaptation of the league-royal cult
  ritual pattern . . . . Hanson, Paul, The Dawn
  of Apocalyptic, 315-6
• Conflict - Victory 9.1-7
• Temple Secured 9.8
• Victory Shout and Procession 9.9
• Manifestation of Yahwehs Universal Reign 9.10
• Salvation Captives released 9.11-13
• Theophany of Divine Warrior 9.14
• Sacrifice and Banquet 9.15
• Fertility of Restored Order 9.16-17

90
Structure of Zechariah 10

• Aside from the prefixed rib against the nations
  leaders, the structure of this poem follows the
  ritual pattern of the conflict myth . . . .
  Hanson, Paul, The Dawn of Apocalyptic, 329
• 10.1-3 (rib vs. leaders)
• 10.4-6a Combat-Victory
• 10.4 Yahweh equips himself with Israel as his
  host
• 10.5-6a Ritual Conquest
• 10.6b-10 Salvation Restoration of the scattered
  people
• 10.11 Procession reenacting the victory of the
  Divine Warrior over Yamm (Assyria-Egypt)
• 10.12 Victory Shout

91
Structure of Zechariah 11

• 11.1-3 A Taunt Against Foreign Nations Redirected
  Against Israels Leadership.
• 11.4-17 A Commissioning Narrative Transformed
  into a Prophecy of Doom.
• Hanson, Paul, The Dawn of Apocalyptic,
  334-354
• The genre of 11.4-17 has been identified as an
  allegory, a parable, a vision, or a report of a
  symbolic act. The verses probably do not fit any
  of those categories precisely. . . . Redditt,
  Paul L., Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi The New
  Century Bible Commentary, 122

92
Structure of Zechariah 12

• As a hymn like Psalm 48 indicates, the original
  royal tradition of the unassailability of Zion
  comes to expression in a special form of the
  Divine Warrior Hymn. It includes these basic
  themes
• 1. Attach if the nations against Jerusalem.
• 2. Yahweh strikes them with panic.
• 3. Jerusalem is delivered.
• 4. Celebration of the kings victory.
• Hanson, Paul, The Dawn of Apocalyptic, 359

93
Structure of Zechariah 12

• In Zechariah 12 these major themes form the
  skeleton of the narrative
• 1. In verses 1-3 the nations come against
  Jerusalem.
• 2. In verse 4 Yahweh strikes the enemy with
  panic.
• 3. In verses 5-9 Jerusalem is delivered.
• 4. In verses 10-14 a ceremony is described.
• Hanson, Paul, The Dawn of Apocalyptic, 359

94
Structure of Zechariah 12

• The genre of 12.1-9 is neither a prophecy of
  disaster nor a prophecy of salvation, but
  something of both. The basic thrust of the verses
  was the future victory of Jerusalem (and Judah)
  over the surrounding peoples.
• Redditt, Paul L., Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
  The New Century Bible Commentary, 128

95
Structure of Zechariah 13

• 13.1 Continues the description of that day.
• 13.2-6 The cleansing of idolatry on that day.
• 13.7-9 Continues 11.4-17.

96
Structure of Zechariah 14

• 14.1-2 Threat gathering of the nations against
  Jerusalem (This motif has been recast in the form
  of a salvation-judgment oracle.
• 14.3 Conflict and Victory Yahweh intervenes and
  fights.
• 14.4-5 Theophany and Procession Yahweh prepares
  a processional way in a mountain-rending
  cataclysm (4-5a) and enters with his holy ones
  (5b).

97
Structure of Zechariah 14

• 14.6-8 Shalom A new creation supplants the
  polarities of the old order with the harmony of a
  new order and the fertility of living waters
  flowing forth from Jerusalem.
• 14.9-11 Manifestation of Yahwehs universal
  reign Yahweh alone will reign (9), and his holy
  mountain will be lifted up over a land (10) which
  will dwell in security (11).

98
Structure of Zechariah 14

• 14.12-15 Covenant Curses The enemies of Yahweh
  and his people will be destroyed. (Although the
  theme of the scattering and destruction of the
  enemy is well established in the ancient
  versions of the conflict myth, the unique
  adaptation here takes the form of the curses of
  the covenant.)

99
Structure of Zechariah 14

• 14.16-19 Procession of the Nations Yahwehs
  universal reign will be recognized by the
  survivors of the nations.
• 14.20-21 Sacrifice and Banquet In a sanctified
  Jerusalem sacrifice and celebration will be
  renewed.
• Hanson, Paul, The Dawn of Apocalyptic, 372

100
Malachi Date

• 1. We can only estimate the date of Malachi's
  ministry....we know that the time was post-exilic
  because of the use of the Persian word PHT
  governor (18). The Temple had been rebuilt
  (110 31,10). The Edomites had suffered a
  crushing blow evidently from some invader. Many
  scholars believe that the crushing blow refers to
  the invasion of Edom by Nabatean.... There is
  kinship between the book of Malachi and that of
  Nehemiah. The same social and religious
  conditions prevail in both, and Nehemiah
  instigates a reform to correct some of the social
  and religious abuses perhaps under the impetus

101
Malachi Date

• of Malachi ( Mal 35 Neh 51-13). Tithing is
  stressed in both (Mal 37-10 Neh 1037-39).
  Divorce and mixed marriages were a problem in
  both (Mal 210-16 Neh 1030 1323-29)....
  Nehemiah's first return to Jerusalem from Babylon
  can be definitely dated in 444 B.C. Therefore
  Malachi should be dated in the first half of the
  fifth century B.C. Smith, Word Biblical
  Commentary Micah-Malachi, 298

102
Malachi Date

• 2. The theme with which Malachi deal and the
  images he paints make it abundantly clear that he
  is a child of the Persian period. Not only has
  the temple been rebuilt (Mal 1.10 3.1, 10), but
  public worship is again carried on in it. At the
  same time, however, there was a loss of earlier
  religious enthusiasm. The return from Babylon
  brought with it none of the ideal glories
  promised by Deutero-Isaiah, and the completion of
  the temple was followed by disillusionment over
  the anticipated prosperity announced by Hag (cf.
  1.7f, 2.7f) and Zech (1.7 2.8).Unlike other
  prophets

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Malachi Date

• who complain that the people put their trust in
  sacrifice to the detriment of righteousness and
  mercy (cf. Isa 1.11 Hos 6.6 Amos 5.21-24),
  Malachi deplores Israels parsimony both in the
  performance of temple worship (M