Philosophical Problems

1
Philosophical Problems

• Most philosophical problems are conceptual in
  nature
• One way for this to happen is for two beliefs to
  conflict conceptually with one another

2
Example

• There is evil in the world
• God exists
• A problem because the concept of God might
  include being all good and creator of
  everything.
• Thus, it seems prima facie impossible for God and
  Evil to exist concurrently.

3
Response

• There is no God! (allows for evil)
• There is no evil! (allows for God)
• A redefining of God or Evil that makes the two
  concepts compatible
• One medieval solution define evil as a lack and
  then declare that God creates everything that
  positively exists, whereas lacks do not
  positively exist.

4
What Did it Do?

• Note that this is a conceptual issue. Redefining
  evil to make it compatible with God is to
  figure out a way for the two concepts to work
  together, or to be able to apply in the same
  conditions.

5
What is Redefining?

• Start with definitions. A definition of X gives
  necessary and sufficient conditions for a given
  concept to apply in the world (for it to be
  instantiated.

6
Necessary Conditions

• X is a necessary condition for Y if and only if
• If you have Y, then you must have X.
• If you dont have X, then you dont have Y.

7
Necessary Conditions

• Being three sided is a necessary condition for
  being a triangle. So,
• If you have Y (a triangle), then you must have X
  (being three-sided).
• If you dont have X (three sidedness), then you
  dont have Y (being a triangle).
• In other words, being three sided is an
  essential part of what triangle objects are. The
  concept of triangularity cannot be instantiated
  without three-sidedness also being
  instantiated.

8
Sufficient Conditions

• X is a sufficient condition for Y if and only if
• If you have X, then you must have Y.

9
Sufficient Conditions

• Being scalene is a sufficient condition for
  being a triangle. So,
• If you have X (being scalene), then you must have
  Y (being a triangle).
• In other words, if the property of being
  scalene is instantiated, that is sufficient for
  us to know that triangularity is also
  instantiated.

10
Once Again

• To define a concept requires that we give both
  necessary and sufficient conditions. So we must
  list
• what properties must be instantiated if that
  concept is instantiated
• AND
• The properties which, if instantiated, would be
  enough for us to know that the concept is also
  instantiated.

11
Criticize These Definitions

• Politician a person who deceives others for
  personal gain.
• Is this a necessary condition? (can the concept
  be instantiated without the condition being
  instantiated?)
• In other words are there politicians who do not
  deceive others for gain?

12
Criticize These Definitions

• Politician a person who deceives others for
  personal gain.
• Is this a sufficient condition? (can the
  condition be instantiated without the concept
  being instantiated?)
• In other words can one deceive others for gain
  but still not be a politician?

13
Philosophy

• Understand the concepts people use by attempting
  to ascertain the exact conditions under which
  they would apply (or not apply). So define
  concepts.
• Socrates asked big questions, like what is
  beauty? or what is the good?
• He wants to know what is the essential nature of
  these things?

14
The (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem

• What is the holy? (what are its necessary and
  sufficient conditions?)
• Pass 1 Prosecuting someone for murder.
• Whats wrong with it?

15
The (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem

• What is the holy? (what are its necessary and
  sufficient conditions?)
• Pass 2 What is pleasing to the Gods.
• Whats wrong with it? (assuming the Greek
  mythology Socrates and Euthyphro share).

16
The (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem

• Pass 3 What is pleasing to the Gods.
• What is holy is what is pleasing to the Gods.
• The Gods disagree.
• So, it is possible for some X, some Gods will be
  pleased by it, some will hate it.
• So, it is possible that some X has and lacks the
  property holy.
• Since it is not possible for 4 to be true, some
  premise in 1 - 3 must be false.

17
Conceptual Analysis

• Identify a problem. (What is holiness?)
• Propose a hypothesis (holiness is what is
  pleasing to the Gods.)
• Derive a test implication. So, if true, we are
  committed to the fact that some things will be
  holy and not holy at the same time.
• Perform the test. The concept cannot exist in a
  world governed by the hypothesis given.
• Accept or reject the hypothesis. REJECT, since
  contradictions cannot exist.