1. Culture (high, low, popular, and mass), Cultural Studies

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Culture (high, low, popular, and mass), Cultural
Studies, race and ethnicity

• September 25-27, 2006

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This weeks lens Cultural Studies

• Academic movement started in UK in 1960s
• Spread quickly Europe, US, Australia
• Combines aspects of
• Media studies - Political science
• Commn studies - Sociology
• Linguistics - Gender studies
• Anthropology - Literary criticism

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Key concerns of Cultural Studies

• Relations of culture and power
• Particularly, power inequalities related to race,
  class, gender, colonialism
• Role of symbols (language, visual images) in
  creating meaning
• Particularly as related to power issues

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Key concerns of CS (ctd.)

• Representation
• how forms of communication (spoken and written
  language music, TV, print media, etc.) present,
  represent, shape, and distort cultural meaning
• Political economy of mediaand relationship to
  messages and meanings
• How ownership of cultural production affects
  products and interpretations

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Key concerns of CS (ctd.)

• Texts and audiences
• What possible meanings do we draw out of (media)
  texts?
• How do (media) audiences interpret texts
  differentlyand why?
• Cultural (and personal) identity
• How do we identify ourselves and others?
• How do cultural/media products contribute to
  identification?

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Definitions of culture

• Classical (British 19th and 20th century)
  literary definitions
• Anthropological traditions definition
• Newer, CS-oriented definitions
• Rejected literary
• Built on and expanded anthropological

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Culture in the classical literary tradition

• Culture was linked to cultivation
• Agriculture
• Growing (crops)
• The cultivated mind (properly trained) and the
  cultured person

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Matthew Arnolds influence

• 19th-century UK poet and cultural critic
• Arnolds definition of culture
• The best that has been thought and said in the
  world
• Belief that reading, thinking, and observing
  (human cultivation) would bring about moral
  perfection
• A better, more civilized, social world

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Matthew Arnold (1822-1888), English poet and
cultural critic
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Implications of Arnolds view

• The world can be divided into the cultured and
  the uncultured
• Or the civilized and the uncivilized
• Culture and civilizationthe domains of the
  educated (and wealthy)are superior to the
  anarchy of the raw and uncultivated masses
• Thus, culture is class-dependent
• And only available to the upper classes

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Expanding Arnold Leavisism

• 1930s literary critics Frank Raymond Leavis
  (1895-1978) and Queenie Roth Leavis (1906-1981)
• Among their famous writings Mass Civilization
  and Minority Culture
• Culture is high point of civilization
• Culture is the concern of the educated minority

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Leavisisms claims

• Elite classes have certain obligations
• Defineand defendthe best of culture
  (literary, musical, artistic)
• Criticizeand, arguably, eliminatethe worst of
  mass culture
• Advertising, movies, popular fiction

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Culture in the anthropological tradition

• An entireand distinctiveway of life
• In other words lived experience

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Enter Cultural Studies (1960s?)

• Direct reaction against views of Arnold and
  Leavises adaptation of anthropological
• Raymond Williams (1921-1988), CS pioneer
  anti-elitist
• Re-visioned culture as a whole way of life
• Concerned especially with working classs
  experience
• And how working class people actively construct
  their own cultures

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Culture as redefined by CS

• As a whole way of life,
• It includes everyday practices AND learning,
  arts, and other expressive aspects
• How we dress, our holidays, our daily rituals
• Our everyday meanings and values
• Our norms
• How we express ourselves
• In short, culture is ordinary (Williams)

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Result of CSs re-definition

• Studying or talking about a groups culture
  could include
• Everyday practices
• Arts, media, entertainment modes previously
  dismissed as low or mass were studied with
  respect and even sympathy
• Newspapers, television, boxing matches, soap
  operas, NASCAR, romance novels, prom dresses

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In other words

• Everyday cultureincluding the culture of
  non-elite classes within our own societieswas
  given legitimacy
• Scholars (and cultural critics) began to value
  the shared traditions of ordinary people
• Not only the elite classes

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Williamss paradoxical claims

• A groups (re-defined) culture is its complex of
• Meanings generated by ordinary individuals
• Lived experiences of its members
• Texts and practices engaged in by people as they
  lead their lives

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BUT

• Culture does not float free of the material
  conditions of life
• Meanings and practices are enacted on terrain
  not of our own making even as we struggle to
  creatively shape our livesWhat did Williams
  mean by this?

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To address this paradox

• We must detour into other key CS concepts
• Then well circle back to issues of
• high vs. low culture
• mass, folk, and popular culture

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Other key CS concepts relevant to ICC (including
mass comm)

• Ideology
• Hegemony
• Race, racialization, and racisms
• Ethnicity
• The nation-state
• The imagined community
• Hybridity
• Identity
• Subject position
• And how all of these relate to POWER

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Ideology exercise

• Divide into groups
• Each group discusses (lists) ONE question
• How does one class justify dominating another?
• How does one race justify dominating another?
• How does one sex justify dominating another?
• How does one nation justify dominating another?
• Provide examples from popular culture

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Ideology

• What does this word mean to you?
• What is an ideology?
• The term ideology was coined (by a 19th-century
  French philosopher) to mean the science of
  ideas
• Since then, has taken on many other meanings
• Here are some of the most common

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1. Value-neutral conception

• Systematic body of ideasa worldviewarticulated
  by a particular group of people
• Pattern of ideas, belief systems, or
  interpretive schemes found in a society or among
  a specific social group (Hall).

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What this implies

• an individual doesnt have an ideology
• but an individual may reflect the ideology of the
  group shes a member of

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2. Karl Marxs definition

• False consciousness a masking, distortion, or
  concealment
• The way some cultural texts and practices present
  distorted images of reality
• Ideology works in interest of the powerful
• and AGAINST interests of the powerless

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Karl Marx (1818-1883)
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Results of ideological distortion, in Marxs view

• Conceals reality of domination from those in
  power
• dominant class do not see themselves as
  exploiters
• Conceals reality of domination from the
  powerless
• they dont see themselves as exploited

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3 focus on ideological forms

• Texts (mediated) always present a particular
  picture of the world, always take sides, thus
  reflect producers ideology
• All texts are ultimately political they offer
  one view or another (but not a multiplicity of
  views!) of how the world is
• Differing ideological significations of reality
  compete with one another

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4 ideology as material practice

• French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser
  (1918-1990) said
• Ideology isnt simply a body of ideas, but rather
  material practice
• Ideology is encountered in practices of everyday
  life

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Louis Althusser (1918-1990)
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Examples of material practice that reflects
ideology

• Rituals and customs that bind us to the social
  order, a social order marked by enormous
  inequalities of wealth, status, and power
• Examples taking summer vacations, giving gifts
  at Christmas

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Yes, Althusser would say

• These things give us pleasure, release tensions
• But ultimately they return us to our places in
  the social order
• Because they reproduce the social conditions
  necessary for capitalism to continue

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What produces and maintains (dominant) ideology
in society?

• Althusser talked about ideological state
  apparatuses (ISAs)
• Family
• Education system
• Church
• Mass media
• These ISAs train us to follow and perpetuate
  the values and rules of the dominant classes

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ISAs vs. RSA

• Althusser because of the power (and willingness)
  of the ISAs to do the work of the powerful
• The Repressive State Apparatus (government,
  military, courts) dont have to resort to force
• The ISAs do their jobs
• And make us into good, law-abiding students,
  family members, citizens, church members,
  capitalists
• Who dont complain, dont try to overthrow the
  government, dont try to overthrow the
  corporation heads (and our bosses)

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As a result

• Ideology (worldview maintained and taught to us
  by the ISAs) comes to be seen as
• natural (as opposed to constructed)
• universal (as opposed to particular)
• complete (as opposed to incomplete)
• neutral (as opposed to partial/biased)
• legitimate (as opposed to illegitimate)
• common sense (as opposed to a particular,
  chosen, preferred sense)

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5 ideology as myth

• French social philosopher Roland Barthes
• Called ideologies the myths of our
  culture/society
• In this sense, myth isnt (necessarily) fictional
• But its a story we tell ourselves about
  ourselves
• What are some American myths (in Barthess sense)?

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Roland Barthes (1915-1980)
                              
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In all of these definitions (except 1), ideology
is

• Meaning in the service of power
• not just a value-neutral set or system of ideas
• Rather, a system that underlies, supports, and
  justifies a groups
• Exercise of power
• Maintenance of power
• Struggles for power

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Is this clear?

• Maybe Antonio Gramsci can help

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Antonio Gramsci (1930s) Hegemony

• Kind of power that arises from ideological
  tendencies of mass media to support established
  power system
• and exclude opposition and competing values
• Not imposed via coercion
• But constantly sought after, struggled over,
  negotiated, and re-negotiated

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Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937)
                          
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Key insight of Gramscis hegemony theory

• The ruling classes in capitalist society (unlike
  Hitlers Germany or Stalins USSR) dont HAVE to
  resort to physical force, violence, or martial
  law
• Direct coercion is unnecessary!
• And, in fact, is LESS effective in the long term
  for maintaining social power

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Hegemony (ctd.)

• In hegemonic systems, dominance of ruling group
  is STRENGTHENED because people (non-dominant)
  consent to their own submission!
• We come to accept existing (and unequal) power
  relationships as normal, natural, common sense,
  the only way

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How?

• The ruling class doesnt directly force us to
  accept its will
• Rather, the dominant present themselves (often
  through the media) as the group best equipped to
  meet our needs
• and we come to agree (for a while)
• e.g., we accept that corporations, government act
  in our best interests

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Meaning that

• the masses (common people) consent to their own
  domination, seeing it as completely normal (or
  failing to question it)!
• the dominated will find their own reasonswhich
  DO actually make sense!to go along with their
  domination
• For example

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Hegemony in our daily lives

• Grades
• Christmas presents
• Body image
• Work

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So what happens in hegemonic systems?

• Dominant classes exercise social and cultural
  leadership
• We consent to, and perpetuate, a system that
  disadvantages us
• In finding our own good reasons to go along with
  the system
• We fail to challenge or question the system
• Let alone call for its overthrow!

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However

• Hegemonic domination is a constant struggle
• Consent must be continually won and re-won
• Concessions are made so that the dominated will
  not overthrow the entire system
• But instead will be given new reasons to accept
  it
• New things to consent to
• The media are often the sites of this struggle

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Hegemony is maintained

• Because dominant have advantages
• Easier access to media
• More input into media representations of
  reality
• And media themselves are huge corporate powers

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Given all this

• CS on culture
• CS on ideology and power
• We might not be surprised by CSs explanations of
• Race
• Ethnicity
• Nation
• Identity

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CS on race, racialization, and racisms

• Stuart Hall races dont exist apart from
  representation
• What does this mean?

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To paraphrase

• Race is a social (and communication) construct
  rather than a biological fact
• Race is constructed by looking at observable
  characteristics
• And then working backwards to create a race

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The fluidity of race

• New Mexico
• The Irish in New York (mid 1800s)
• The Jews in US (late 1800s)
• black blood

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CS on race and power

• CS argument race is a construct (multi-faceted
  concept) developed in order to justify power
  differentials
• Labor market
• Economy
• Housing market
• Education system
• Media
• Legal system
• Immigration

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Race and nationhood

• If youre a member of a minority race in a nation
• Are you truly a member of the nation?
• Blacks in US
• Blacks in UK
• Blacks in South Africa during apartheid

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CS on ethnicity

• A cultural concept
• An ethnic groups members share
• Norms
• Values
• Beliefs
• Cultural symbols and practicesall of which
  developed under specific historical, social,
  political contexts

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What ethnicity does

• Encourages sense of belonging
• Based (at least in part) on common mythological
  ancestry (why mythological?)
• Shared (or believed to be shared) history,
  language, culture

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Ethnicity as relational concept

• Im a member of ethnic group X because Im not a
  member of Y or Z
• We define our ethnicity by contrasting ourselves
  to out groups
• Implies power relations
• Some groups are at the center, while others are
  at periphery
• Examples in US?

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CS on the nation-state

• The nation-state is an invention
• Not a natural (naturally occurring) group
• Rather, a contingent historical-cultural
  formation
• Prime example? The US!

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Nation-states and national identity

• Nation-state a political concept
• An administrative apparatus
• Group of people with shared government, laws,
  leaders who have sovereignty over defined body of
  land
• National identity imaginative identification
  with the symbols and discourses of the
  nation-state

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Careful!

• National cultural identities are not co-terminous
  with state borders
• Consider Jewish, African, Indian, cultural
  identities

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Nation as imagined community

• Benedict Anderson (1983) argued that nations are
  imagined communities
• What might this mean?
• Not false
• But simply, an ideasomething that exists in our
  heads if not in physical space
• We dont know most of our fellow Americans
• But we have shared ideasand we believe ourselves
  to be a unity

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Hybridity

• Basically, cultural mixing
• Few cultures are homogeneous
• Our culture reflects hybridity
• Few individuals have ancestors from only one
  culture
• We are hybrids as individuals
• As a result of mixing, we create new identities
• African-American, Italian-American,
  Afro-Caribbean, Pakistani-British

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Multiple identities

• No one of us has an identity that is pure or
  fixed
• We are each a hybrid
• At any moment, we each can be described as
  belonging to one or more
• Ethnicity
• Nation
• Sex
• Race
• Occupation
• class

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Hence, multiple subject positions

• How are you, or can you be, addressed?
• What roles do you play?
• Mother, sister, daughter
• Boss, employee
• Student, teacher
• Friend, co-worker
• Fellow church member, club member, team member

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Recap key CS concepts

• Ideology
• Hegemony
• Race, racialization, and racisms
• Ethnicity
• The nation-state
• The imagined community
• Hybridity
• Identity
• Subject position

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Link to our course?

• Popular cultureparticularly as transmitted via
  the mass mediais arguably the most important
  site in our lives in which these issues are
  played out, spelled out, and contested
• So lets get back to culture
• High, low, popular, and other

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Recap high culture, etc.

• Arnold and the Leavises (19th-20th C. UK) define
  culture as the best
• View that culture is the domain only of the
  minority
• Educated, moneyed elite
• What has come to be called high culture
• By contrast, what the non-educated, non-moneyed
  everyday folk do is uncivilized, uncultured low
  culture

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CS mid-1960s and beyond

• New approach to culture
• Culture as ordinary, everyday
• Entire ways of life
• Regardless of class/status

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Moreover, CS argues

• There is no legitimate grounds for drawing
  distinction between high and low culture
• Artistic forms, whether Shakespeare or WWF
  broadcasts
• all expressive and creative
• all are socially created
• Who is to decide which is more worthy?

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While many people still do distinguish high vs.
low . . .

• High cultural activities of the wealthy or
  elite opera, ballet, symphony, great literature,
  fine art
• Low all other
• In other words, activities of the non-elite
  music videos, TV game shows, professional
  wrestling, NASCAR, graffiti art, Jackie Chan
  movies

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CS (and many other scholars) prefer to speak of

• popular culture
• rather than demeaning non-elite culture as low

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How might we define popular culture?

• Systems or artifacts that most people share and
  that most people know about
• Made popular by and for the people
• Speaks toand resonates fromthe people
• But NOT usually created BY the people!
• Why not?

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Popular culture as mass culture

• Most popular culture formsmovies, TV shows,
  magazines, videos, CDsare produced by large
  corporations
• And are then sold to the people
• Hence, the music, art, film, television (etc.)
  businesses were called the culture industries
  by Adorno and Horkheimer (1940s cultural critics)

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The culture industries

• Acknowledgment of mass-produced nature of popular
  culture products
• CDs, DVDs, magazines, paperback novels, etc.
• Acknowledgment of for-profit nature of the
  companies that make and market them
• Sony, Disney, Time-Warner, etc., arent in it for
  love!

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Production vs. consumption wheres your focus?

• Frankfurt School (Critical Theory) of 1940s
  leveled criticism on the production end of the
  chain (critique of mass culture)
• CS focuses on the consumption end (thus prefers
  the term popular culture), inquires into
• How do we (consumers, ordinary people) use the
  products of the culture industries?
• How do we interpret them?
• What meanings/values do we give them?
• Why are these things important to us?

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Depending on your focus

• If youre focused on the production end (the
  corporate, mass-produced, for-profit aspects),
  youre probably more likely to speak of mass
  culture
• If youre focused on the consumption/
  interpretation end, youre probably more likely
  to speak of popular culture

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Why popular culture is so important to ICC
(Martin/Nakayama)

• Popular culture plays an enormous role in
  explaining relations around the globe
• It is through popular culture that we try to
  understand the dynamics of other cultures and
  other nations
• For many of us, the world exists through popular
  culture

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Why popular culture is so important more generally

• Its everywhere
• Disseminated widely (in many cases, globally)
• Its impossible to avoid
• We all have easy access to it
• It comes at us from all directions
• It comes at us every moment of our lives
• We wear it, buy it, think about it, listen to it,
  read it, watch it

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And on the positive side

• Popular culture serves important social functions
• Windows onto the world
• Shared experiences and (parasocial) relationships
• Forum for public discussion (especially, but not
  only, the news)
• Shaper of opinions
• Shaper of identities
• Shaper of meanings

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But popular culture does not work monolithically!

• What do I mean by this?
• Hint recall Halls encoding/decoding model of
  communication

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encoding/decoding

programme as meaningful discourse
encoding
decoding
frameworks of knowledge relations of production
technical infrastructure
frameworks of knowledge relations of production
technical infrastructure
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Claims Hall makes

• Producers of cultural texts (TV shows, ads,
  movies, books, videos) operate within specific
  cultural contexts
• And produce out of their own frameworks of
  knowledge
• But we consumers consume the texts within our own
  contexts
• We dont find the same meanings as the producers
• Or each other!

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However, Hall claimed

• We dont necessarily have 6 billion reading
  positions
• Hall identified 3 reading positions, depending
  upon a readers class (and identification with
  producer)
• Dominant
• Negotiated
• Oppositional

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Popular culture, then

• Is a site of struggle
• We have competing, even conflicting,
  interpretations of what a cultural text means
• And what values it represents
• And whether we like (approve of) it or not
• And if its offensive or agreeable
• We offer different decodings and struggle over
  them
• We negotiate the meanings of cultural texts

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How might we interpret

• U. of North Dakota Fighting Sioux
• Florida State U. Seminoles
• Washington Redskins
• Atlanta Braves
• Cleveland Indians
• Insult/racial slur?
• Compliment/honor?

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Popular culture and problems of representation

• The big question
• Do popular culture texts (especially those
  depicting cultures other than our own) truly,
  fairly, accurately represent the cultures they
  claim to be showing?

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For example

• Is Jackass a representation of America,
  quintessential Americans and quintessential
  American values?
• or only a selective portrait of a small group of
  Americans?
• How might Jackass (if viewed outside the US)
  create or reinforce stereotypes about Americans?

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How CS approaches criticism of popular culture

• The important questions
• Not whether a cultural text is good or bad
  (in terms of quality)
• Rather,
• What ideologies are conveyed, overtly or subtly?
• How are individuals and cultures represented?
• How might representations maintain power
  differentials?