How to Facilitate Participatory Decision-Making

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How to FacilitateParticipatory Decision-Making
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Dynamics of Group Decision-Making

• Divergent Thinking
• Generating alternatives
• Free-for-all open discussion
• Gathering diverse points of view
• Unpacking the logic of a problem

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Dynamics of Group Decision-Making

• Convergent Thinking
• Evaluating alternatives
• Summarizing key points
• Sorting ideas into categories
• Arriving at a general conclusion

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Theres something wrong with the idealized model,
convergent thinking simply does not follow
automatically from a divergent thinking process

• What is missing?
• A period of confusion and frustration is a
  natural part of group decision-making
• Upon crossing the line from airing familiar
  opinions to exploring diverse perspectives, group
  members will have to struggle in order to
  integrate new and different ways of thinking with
  their own

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Groan Zone

• Struggling to understand a wide range of foreign
  or opposing ideas is not a pleasant experience
• Group members can be repetitious, insensitive,
  defensive, and short-tempered

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Diamond of Participatory Decision Making

• The process is not smooth or sequential
• Characterized by confusion and misunderstanding
• Involves ambiguity and conflict

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Participatory Decision Making Core Values

• Full Participation
• ALL members are encouraged to speak up and say
  whats on their minds
• Mutual Understanding
• To reach a sustainable agreement, members need to
  understand and accept the legitimacy of one
  anothers needs and goals
• Inclusive Solutions
• Wise solutions, wisdom emerges from the
  integration of everybodys perspectives and needs
• Shared Responsibility
• Members feel a strong sense of responsibility for
  creating and developing sustainable agreements

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Facilitator Skills for Participatory Decision
Making

• Encourage Full Participation
• Draws people out
• Reduce criticism
• Encourage thinking (avoid shutdown)
• Promote Mutual Understanding
• Thinking from each others points of view is
  invaluable
• Foster Inclusive Solutions
• Search for innovative ideas that incorporate
  everyones points of view
• Teach New Thinking Skills
• Principles for finding inclusive solutions
• Well-designed procedures for running meetings
• Structured thinking activities
• Clear language to describe group dynamics

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Facilitative Listening Skills

• An idea that is expressed in an acceptable
  communication style will be taken more seriously
  by more people
• Conversely, ideas that are presented poorly or
  offensively are harder for people to hear
• Paraphrasing
• Drawing People Out
• Mirroring
• Gathering Ideas
• Stacking (people take turns)
• Tracking (keeping track of the various lines of
  thought transpiring within a discussion)
• Encouraging
• Balancing (asking for other views)
• Making Space (opportunity for quiet person to
  talk)
• Intentional Silence (allows speaker extra time to
  discover what they want to say)
• Listening for Common Ground (validates areas of
  disagreement and focuses group on areas of
  agreement)

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Facilitating Open Discussion

• Who talks when
• Organizing the flow of a discussion
• Stacking
• Informal techniques for broadening participation
• Encouraging (nudge people to speak up)
• Balancing (encouraging different perspectives)
• Making Space (questions or supportive statements
  aimed at specific individuals)
• Using the Clock
• Helping individuals make their points
• Reflective Listening
• Paraphrasing
• Mirroring
• Drawing People Out (Only when the persons ideas
  are hard to understand)

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Facilitating Open Discussion

• Focusing the discussion?
• Managing diverse perspectives
• Sequencing
• Validate both perspectives
• Help the group pay attention to one line of
  thought for a few minutes
• Help group pay attention to a different line of
  thought
• Calling for Responses (preserves focus of
  discussion and encourages participation)
• Deliberate Refocusing
• Tracking (keeping track of lines of thought/check
  for accuracy)
• Asking for themes (lines of thought identified by
  group members)
• Framing (discussion branches out/determining
  which direction to pursue)
• Tolerating Silence
• Switching from open discussion to a different
  format
• Introducing an open discussion

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Alternatives to Open DiscussionParticipation
Formats

• Small Groups
• Presentations Reports
• Multi-Tasking
• Simultaneous Committees
• The Gallery Tour (Tour charts from each
  individual group)
• Fishbowls (five or six volunteers in the
  fishbowl)
• Role-plays
• Computer Assisted Meetings
• Open Discussion
• Individual Writing
• Idea-Listing
• Structured Go-Arounds

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Chart writing in Action

• Sentences are easy to read
• Dont be shy (write we and I)
• Verbs and nouns are high priority
• Adjectives and adverbs are low priority
• Use only standard abbreviations
• Title every page
• Encourage proofreading

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Ground Rules for Brainstorming

• Every contribution is worthwhile
• Even weird, way-out ideas
• Even confusing ideas
• Especially silly ideas
• Suspend judgment
• We wont evaluate each others ideas
• We wont censor our own ideas
• Well save these ideas for later discussion
• We can modify this process before it starts or
  after it ends, but not while its underway

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What to do After a Brainstorm

• Cull the list by selecting high priority items
• Create categories and sort data into them
• Discuss What do we want to do now?
• Debrief the activity by sharing reflections on
  the list as a whole
• Sort data into predefined categories

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Two Methods of Categorizing

• Each person, in turn, proposes his/her own set of
  categories (it is acceptable to propose one
  category or many, on each turn)
• Everyone takes as many turns as they want
  (combinations and variations are encouraged)
• After all sets of categories have been listed,
  discuss them
• Sometimes the groups thinking converges easily
  into one set of categories (if so, the task is
  done, if not, be prepared for a lengthy
  discussion)

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Sorting a List Into Predefined Categories

• As a group, select one or more predefined
  categories (example how urgent is each item
  high, medium or low)
• Recruit two or three people to sort the list
• The sorters should review the list item by item,
  making sure to place every item in a category
• Tell the sorters that it is perfectly fine to
  place one item in more than one category
  especially if they disagree about the right
  category
• When the list has been sorted, bring it back to
  the large group

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Dealing With Difficult Dynamics

• Domination by a highly verbal member
• Focus efforts on the passive majority, encourage
  them to participate
• Goofing around in the midst of a discussion
• Aim for a break as soon as possible
• Low participation by the entire group
• Switch from large-group open discussion to a
  different format that lowers the anxiety level
  (example idea-listing)
• Two people locking horns
• Reach out to other members, see if anyone else
  has an opinion or if there are other issues
  needing to be discussed
• One or two silent members in a group whose other
  members participate actively
• Ask for opinions from those members who havent
  participated (break into small groups)

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Dealing With Difficult Dynamics

• Whispering and side jokes
• With warmth and humor, make an appeal for decorum
  (if it persists, ask if the topic has become
  boring or stale, break, small group)
• Minimal participation by members who dont feel
  invested in the topic
• Have a discussion on what is important to me
  about the topic (break into small groups)
• Poor follow-through on assignments
• Do assignments in teams (report back at midpoint)
• Failure to start on time and end on time
• Start when you say you are going to start, if you
  must go overtime, call a break so people can
  phone home

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Dealing With Difficult Dynamics

• Quibbling about trivial procedures
• Have the group step back from the content of the
  issue and talk about the process
• Someone becomes strident and repetitive
• Summarize the persons point of view until he or
  she feels understood, encourage participants to
  state the opposing views of group members
• Someone discovers a completely new problem that
  no one had previously noted
• This may be the doorway into a new way of
  thinking about the whole situation

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Overcoming a Groups Natural Tendency to Defer to
The Person-in-Charge

• Break into small groups for part of the
  discussion
• Set aside time to criticize the ideas of the
  person-in-charge
• Have the person-in-charge speak first, then ask
  for other perspectives
• Have the person-in-charge leave the room for part
  of the discussion
• Submit comments anonymously
• Use unanimity as the decision rule for making
  agreements
• Have the person-in-charge speak last
• Go around the room and have everyone express
  their opinions
• Have people write their individual thoughts on a
  topic first, then share them aloud

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Agenda Planning

• Two Critical Components
• Clarify the desired outcome for each topic
• Design a process to reach each outcome

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Options For Work Between Meetings

• Research
• Edit and summarize
• Type and distribute notes
• Categorize a list
• Seek input from someone
• Move the thinking forward
• Report to someone
• No further work until next meeting

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Moving From the Beginning to the End of a Topic

• Beginning of the topic
• Activity 1 Brainstorming
• Activity 2 Categorizing
• Activity 3 Open Discussion
• End of the topic

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Thinking Activities

• Brainstorming
• Categorizing
• Prioritizing
• Pros and Cons
• Debate
• Case Studies
• Visioning Wordsmithing
• Researching Facts

• Personal Self-Disclosure
• Questions and Answers
• Creating Scenarios
• Values Exploration
• Challenging Assumptions
• Giving Feedback
• Planning Next Steps
• Evaluating the Meeting

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Building Sustainable Agreements

• Agreement is based on a solution that
  incorporates everyones point of view
• People work to understand one anothers goals,
  needs, fears, and frames of reference
• They face conflicts and overcome them
• They explore possibilities by putting themselves
  in each others shoes
• They challenge their underlying assumptions
• They search for imaginative solutions
• They share responsibility for reaching a result
  that works for everyone

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Mindset for Solving Problems

• Value System Collaborative
• Type of Outcome Expected Win/Win
• Attitude Toward Winning Your success is my
  success
• Attitude Toward Losing If someone loses
  everyone loses
• Attitude Toward Minority Opinions Everyone has
  a piece of the truth
• Why Explore Differences Between Competing
  Positions? To build a shared framework of
  understanding, in preparation for mutual creative
  thinking
• Essential Mental Activity Synthesize integrate
  parts into wholes
• How Long It Takes Its usually faster in the
  long run
• When To Use It When all parties have the power
  to block any decision, and the issue is for high
  stakes, Both/And thinking is usually the only
  hope for resolution
• Underlying Philosophy Interdependence of all
  things

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Gathering Diverse Points of View

• Surveying the Territory
• Identifying the components of the problem
  (collecting perspectives)
• Searching for Alternatives
• Listing unusual, innovative ideas (generating)
• Raising Difficult Issues
• Discussion of a troubling, or threatening subject
  (speaking freely)

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Surveying the Territory

• Speak From Your Own Perspective (participants
  offer their own points of view)
• Specifying Requirements (take into account
  stakeholders requirements)
• Who, What, When, Where, and How? (identify all
  questions)
• Facts and Opinions (information gathering)
• Starting Positions (lets people see where they
  stand)
• Unrepresented Perspectives (recognize blind
  spots)

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Searching for Alternatives

• The Trigger Method
• Each individual writes questions and solutions,
  group selects the most promising ideas for
  analysis
• Brainwriting
• Write down four ideas and pass page on, new
  person then writes one or two more ideas
• Rolestorming
• Participate in discussion from perspective of
  imaginary character and other half participates
  as themselves, then switch roles
• Analogies
• Generate a list of situations, or actions which
  are unrelated to the problem at hand, but which
  are analogous in some way.

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Raising Difficult Issues

• Is there anything Im not saying?
• Helps group members to take a look at the
  thoughts theyve been having, but not speaking
• How has this affected me?
• Supports people to react to a problem on a
  personal level
• Three complaints
• Opportunity to complain about their situation,
  vent negative feelings

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Building a Shared Framework of
UnderstandingTwo Types of Thinking in the Groan
Zone

• Creating Shared Context
• Promote mutual understanding
• Strengthening Relationships
• Activities that support people to get to know
  each other

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Creating Shared Context

• Learning more about each others perspectives
• If I were you
• Look at the world through each others eyes
• Backing up from solutions to needs
• Meaningful themes
• How will this proposal impact our jobs
• Thinking in multiple time frames
• Helps everyone focus on the same time frame

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Strengthening Relationships

• Getting to know each other
• Anecdotes and mementos
• Two truths and a lie
• The support seat (ask person question about their
  life)
• Giving and receiving feedback
• Observations and interpretations
• Appreciations
• How do I come across

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Developing Inclusive Solutions(Everyones
Interests are Take Into Consideration)

• Three types of thinking in the convergent zone
  (whole group is operating within a shared context
  of meaning)
• Exploring inclusive principles
• Identifying and discussing principles promoting
  creative problem solving (application)
• Creative reframing
• Altering ones beliefs about the nature of the
  problem (paradigm-shifting)
• Strengthening good ideas
• Group evaluates and refines the logic and quality
  of their thinking (critical reasoning)

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Exploring Inclusive Principles

• Using case studies
• Present real-life examples of inclusive solutions
  to difficult problems, and encourage discussion
• For some, discussing a case study is more
  effective than listening to a lecture

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Creative Reframing (re-examine beliefs and
assumptions)

• Main challenge is to motivate people to invest
  time in reframing a problem
• Whats unchangeable about this problem
• Allows group to explore hidden assumptions and
  biases in the way they have defined a problem
• Key words
• Helps people explore the meaning of the
  statements they make to one another (helps to
  avoid miscommunication)
• Reversing Assumptions
• Discuss how group can bring about the opposite of
  the assumption or state of affairs
• Removing Constraints
• What is keeping us from developing the best
  solution to this problem
• What if this wasnt a problem
• Recentering the cause
• Break the problem into major components
• Select any component and treat as major cause of
  the problem
• Catastrophizing
• Imagining anything and everything that could go
  wrong
• Identify obstacles that merit further discussion

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Strengthening Good Ideas

• Clarifying evaluation criteria (how should a
  group choose one proposal over another)
• Group members discuss and reach agreement on a
  list of five or fewer criteria
• Payoffs and risks
• Improves viability of a proposal by reducing the
  costs and risks associated
• Resource analysis Can we really make this work
• Who else needs to evaluate this proposal (who
  else will be affected)
• Who does what by when (resources needed to
  undertake these efforts and commit to well
  defined tasks by specific times)

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Striving for Unanimity

• Unanimous Latin derivation, unus meaning one
  and animus meaning spirit
• A group reaching unanimous agreement is a group
  that is acting from one spirit
• To reach unanimity, EVERYONE must AGREE
• EVERYONE has an individual veto
• Veto capacity is the crux of the power of
  unanimous agreement
• When a group commits to unanimous agreement they
  are committing to remain in a discussion until
  they develop a solution that takes EVERYONES
  needs into account

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Unanimity vs. Consensus

• Consensus Latin derivation, con meaning with,
  or together and sentire, meaning to think and
  feel
• Consentire translates to thinking and feeling
  together
• Consensus is a process by which the group thinks
  and feels together en route to their decision
• Unanimity by contrast is the point at which the
  group reaches closure

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Is Unanimous Agreement Realistic

• Every person has veto power over every decision
• Every time someone says no they are requiring
  the group to spend more time on the discussion
• Gradients of Agreement
• Better Vocabulary
• Enthusiastic Support
• Lukewarm Support
• Ambiguous Support
• Meager Support

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Gradients of AgreementBetter Vocabulary

• Endorsement I like it
• Endorsement with a minor point of contention
  Basically I like it
• Agreement with reservations I can live with
  it
• Abstain - I have no opinion
• Stand aside I dont like this, but I dont
  want to hold up the group
• Formal disagreement, but willing to go with
  majority I want my disagreement noted in
  writing, but Ill support the decision
• Formal disagreement, with request to be absolved
  of responsibility for implementation I dont
  want to stop anyone else, but I dont want to be
  involved in implementing it
• Block I veto this proposal

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When does a group need to seek enthusiastic
support? When is lukewarm or even ambivalent
support sufficient?

• Enthusiastic support Desirable whenever the
  stakes are so high that the consequences of
  failure would be severe
• Lukewarm support Perfectly adequate when the
  decision only affects a few people or when the
  stakes are low
• Ambiguous Support Group would benefit from more
  discussion
• Meager Support Sometimes the risk is justified
  in an emergency, or it may be wiser to slow down
  and search for a better idea, or whether it is
  wiser to act quickly and take the risk

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Five Ways to Find Out Where People Stand

• Show of hands
• Pick one and say why go around room, no
  discussion
• Simultaneous declaration - write number on paper
  and hold up at same time
• Secret ballot
• Two rounds first round is preliminary round
  then have discussion and then a final poll, use
  one of the above to gather data

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How to Use the Gradients of Agreement Scale

• Let each group create their own set of gradients
• Record the results of the poll on a flipchart

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Reaching Closure

• World of ideas
• World of actions
• Point of decision is the point that separates
  thinking from action
• Discussion occurs before a decision has been
  made, implementation happens after the decision
  has been made

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Common Decision Rules

• How do we know weve made a decision
• Unanimous Agreement
• Members work to understand one anothers
  perspectives until they integrate those
  perspectives into a shared framework of
  understanding, then they create innovative
  proposals acceptable to everyone
• Majority Vote
• Produces a win/lose solution through and
  adversarial process
• Person-in-charge decides without discussion
• Assumes full responsibility
• Flip a Coin
• Arbitrary, random method of making a decision
• Delegation
• Person-in-charge decides after discussion

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Reaching Closure(The Meta-Decision)

• The discussion reaches a stopping point
• The person-in-charge decides that the discussion
  has been adequate (brings the issue to closure by
  making a final decision)
• The person-in-charge decides that important
  issues still need to thought through (wants group
  to continue the discussion)
• To avoid confusion, person-in-charge needs to
  show everyone what he/she is doing
• Deciding whether or not to make a decision is
  called making a meta-decision

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Three Meta-Decisions

• The Doyle and Straus Fallback
• Person-in-charge sets time limit
• During period of time group strives to reach a
  unanimous decision
• If time runs out person-in-charge makes
  meta-decision (final decision or reopen
  discussion)
• Caroline Estes Vote to Vote
• Switch from unanimity to majority (if 80 of the
  voters favor switching, discussion ends and the
  group uses majority rule to reach a decision)
• Any group member can call for a vote
• Sam Kaners Meta-Decision
• Polling helps a group obtain maximum benefit from
  the use of a meta-decision (using Gradients of
  Agreement)
• Close discussion
• Clarify the proposal
• Poll the group
• Person-in-charge decides whether he/she will now
  make the decision or the group should discuss the
  issues further

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The Facilitators Job in Facilitating Sustainable
Agreements

• The Divergent Zone (Moving from Business As
  Usual)
• Facilitator teaches the thinking skill of
  suspended judgment, giving people permission to
  speak freely
• The Groan Zone (The Commitment to Struggle)
• Facilitators job is to hang in and support
  people while they struggle to understand each
  other
• The Convergent Zone (Shared framework of
  understanding)
• Facilitator may need to teach participants how to
  turn an either/or problem into a both/and
  solution
• Facilitator may need to get out of the way (chart
  writing, keeping track of time)
• The Experience of Reaching Closure
• Facilitator helps members to clarify decision
  rules (Gradients of Agreement)

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Facilitators Four Functions

• Encourage full participation
• Promote mutual understanding
• Foster inclusive solutions
• Teach new thinking skills

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References

• Kaner, S., et al (1996). Facilitator's Guide to
  Participatory Decision Making. New Society
  Publishers.
• Harvey, T., et al (1997). The Practical Decision
  Maker. The Scarecrow Press Lanham, Maryland.