Understanding and managing organizational stress

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• Understanding and managing organizational stress

Using empirically-tested theory to advance
practice
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• Understanding and managing organizational stress

Using empirically-tested theory to advance
practice Alex Haslam, Anne OBrienJolanda
Jetten, Louise Humphrey, Lucy OSullivan, Tom
Postmes, Karine Vormedal, Sally Penna, Claire
WaghornUniversity of Exeter
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Overview
theory

• What is organizational stress?
• Contemporary approaches to understanding stress
• The social identity approach
• Support for the social identity approach
  (multi-method)
• Case study in an organizational setting
  (HSE-driven)
• How to assess stress process and tools
• Key issues in developing successful
  interventions engagement and empowerment
• The need to ASPIRe

problem assessment
response
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What is organizational stress?

• Three elements
• stressor  environmental element that poses
  potential threat to employees well-being
• strain  psychological and physiological state of
  a person in responding to environmental demands
• stress impact that stressors and strain
  actually have on the employee and their capacity
  to function effectively  
• Note that stress can be
• negative (distress), or
• positive (eustress)

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Contemporary approaches to organizational stress

• Traditional approaches
• physiological
• stressor-based
• occupation-based
• personality-based
• Problems (for review see Haslam, 2004)
• very limited understanding of psychological or
  social aspects of stress the importance of
  perceptions and interpretation, the importance of
  group life (dynamics, norms, influence).
• lack of predictive power

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Contemporary approaches to organizational stress

• Transactive approach (Lazarus and Folkman, 1964)
• Points to importance of perceptions and
  interpretation.
• Suggests stress depends on appraisal of
  stressors
• Primary appraisal Is this stressful? Depends on
  construal
• Secondary appraisal Can I cope? Depends on
  support

secondary
primary
support
Stressful for me?
Can I cope?
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Contemporary approaches to organizational stress

• Classic demonstration
• Students shown film of bodies being mutilated
• In control condition they were given no further
  information and became very distressed
• In experimental condition they were told the
  video was staged and for training purposes and
  were much less distressed

secondary
primary
support
Stressful for me?
Can I cope?
depends on construal
others can provide informational support which
affects construal
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Contemporary approaches to organizational stress

• Transactional approach is currently most
  influential, but still doesnt deal with social
  dimensions of stress very well.
• Primary appraisal doesnt just depend on
  information (sometimes information has
  boomerang effects e.g., dont panic!).
• Secondary appraisal doesnt just depend on
  support (sometimes support has no impact or
  negative impact).
• Need a more social psychological theory

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The social identity approach
personal identity salient
social identity salient

• To the extent that our sense of self is defined
  by group membership (i.e., in terms of social
  identity), rather than our individuality
  (personal identity), our behaviour is shaped by
  the perspective and interests of that ingroup.

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The social identity approach
personal identity salient
social identity salient

• In particular, to the extent that social identity
  is salient
• (a) our perceptions are aligned with other
  ingroup members,
• (b) we influence, and are influenced by, ingroup
  members,
• (c) we enhance self-esteem by working
  collaboratively towards shared ingroup goals.

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The social identity approach

• This has implications for a broad range of
  organizational and social issues (e.g., see
  Haslam, 2001, in press Haslam, van Knippenberg,
  Platow Ellemers, 2003).
• e.g., leadership, motivation, communication,
  decision making, productivity, collective action
• e.g. organizational citizenship. To the extent
  that people define themselves in terms of social
  identity, they should be more willing to engage
  in behaviour which promotes the interests of the
  group to which that identity relates even if
  this involves personal cost (e.g., Ellemers et
  al., in press).
• But does this have any implications for stress
  and mental health?

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The social identity approach

• Grounds for thinking it might, lead to a number
  of hypotheses
• When a shared social identity is salient, this
  should impact on both primary and secondary
  appraisal
• Primary appraisal Is this stressful?
• To the extent that social identity is salient,
  appraisal will be determined by implications for
  group rather than personal self.

primary
Personal identity salient
Stressful for me?
Social identity salient
Stressful for us?
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The social identity approach

• Grounds for thinking it might, lead to a number
  of hypotheses
• When a shared social identity is salient, this
  should impact on both primary and secondary
  appraisal (Lazarus Folkman, 1984)
• Secondary appraisal Is it possible to cope?
• To the extent that social identity is salient,
  appraisal will be determined by resources and
  condition of the group (and its capacity to
  provide support) rather than personal self.

secondary
primary
Personal identity salient
Stressful for me?
Can I cope?
Social identity salient
Stressful for us?
Can we cope?
support
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The social identity approach

• On the plus side, then
• To the extent that they define themselves in
  terms of shared group membership, individuals
  should provide, receive, and benefit from social
  support from fellow ingroup members (with whom
  they perceive themselves to share social identity
  (Postmes Branscombe, 2002 Schmitt et al.,
  1999).
• Among other things, this is because social
  identity provides the basis for a shared
  cognitive framework which means any help will be
  interpreted in the spirit in which it is
  intended. This should manifest itself in enhanced
  trust (Kramer Tyler, 1993).
• It should also mean that individuals have greater
  potential for collective self-actualization.
  This should manifest itself in an enhanced sense
  of collective accomplishment.

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The social identity approach

• On the minus side When social identity is
  salient, individuals desire to contribute to the
  group and to live up to, and enforce, group norms
  may mean they are willing to jeopardize personal
  well-being (e.g., leading to exhaustion) and the
  well-being of others who dont embody group norms
  (e.g. bullying of outgroup members).
• If groups fail to achieve ingroup-defining goals,
  this may also be particularly stressful for those
  who identify strongly with them.

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Support for the SIA Experimental data(Haslam,
Jetten, OBrien Jacobs, 2004)

• Does social identification affect appraisal?
• Modification of classic transactional study.
• Students exposed to message that maths task is
  challenging or stressful.
• But message also emanates from person described
  as ingroup member (a fellow student), or an
  outgroup member (a stress sufferer).
• Measures
• Self-reported stress while performing task (22
  items, a .92).

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Support for the SIA Experimental data(Haslam,
Jetten, OBrien Jacobs, 2004)

• Does social identification affect appraisal?
• Yes. Appraisal (and associated reaction to a
  potential stressor) is only shaped by
  informational support to the extent that this
  emanates from an ingroup source.

Reported stress
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Support for the SIA Survey data(Haslam, Jetten,
Vormedal, Penna OBrien, under review)

• Is social identification in the workplace
  associated with increased social support and does
  this protect individuals from adverse effects of
  stress?
• Survey of bomb disposal experts and bar workers
  (N 40).
• Self-report measures
• Social identification with workteam (3 items, a
  .92)
• Social support (8 items, a .90)
• Negative work stress (8 items, a .70)
• Perceived stress of bomb disposal work (3 items,
  a .95)
• Perceived stress of bar work (2 items, a .71)

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Support for the SIA Survey data(Haslam, Jetten,
Vormedal, Penna OBrien, under review)

• Bar workers find handling bombs more stressful
  than bar work, but bomb handlers report the
  opposite.
• Group membership provides a basis for
  interpreting and normalizing stress

Perceived stressfulness of work
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Support for the SIA Survey data (Haslam,
Jetten, Vormedal, Penna OBrien, under review)

• Social identification is associated with
• (a) receipt of more social support (r .55)
• (b) less stress (r .47)
• (c) more work satisfaction (r .48)

social identification
.47

• Relationship between social identification and
  stress is partially (but significantly) mediated
  by social support.

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Support for the SIA Survey data (Haslam,
Jetten, Vormedal, Penna OBrien, under review)

• Is social identification associated with
  increased social support and does this protect
  individuals from adverse effects of stress?
• Survey of patients recovering from heart surgery
  in Norway (N 38).
• Self-report measures
• Social identification with family (3 items, a
  .81)
• Social support (10 items, a .90)
• Negative stress (9 items, a .79)
• Life satisfaction (5 items, a .82)

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Support for the SIA Survey data (Haslam,
Jetten, Vormedal, Penna OBrien, under review)

• Social identification is associated with
• (a) receipt of more social support (r .61)
• (b) less stress (r .33)
• (c) more satisfaction with hospital environment
  (r .41)
• (d) more satisfaction with life (r .42)

life satisfaction
.42
stress
social identification
.33

• Relationship between social identification and
  (a) stress and (b) life satisfaction is fully
  (and significantly) mediated by social support

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Support for the SIA Longitudinal data

• The above studies provide data which is
  consistent with, and helps flesh out, a social
  identity approach to stress-related issues.
• However, like most other research in the field
  this data is
• (a) correlational
• (b) cross-sectional, and
• (c) based on self-report.
• As a result, it doesnt allow us to disentangle
  cause and effect, or look at stress as it evolves
  in the context of developing group dynamics.

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Support for the SIA Longitudinal data (Haslam,
Waghorn, OSullivan, Jetten OBrien, under
review)

• Is social identification associated with reduced
  burnout and does this contribute to the long-term
  impact of stress?
• Five-phase study of theatre production staff (N
  30).
• Self-report measures
• Social identification with production (3 items,
  mean a .86)
• Burnout (5 items, mean a .62)
• Organizational citizenship (3 items, mean a
  .82)
• Work satisfaction (3 items, mean a .71)

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Support for the SIA Longitudinal data (Haslam,
Waghorn, OSullivan, Jetten OBrien, under
review)

• Is social identification associated with reduced
  burnout and does this contribute to the long-term
  impact of stress?
• Self-report measures
• Examined as a function of social identification
  (high, low) on five occasions
• (1) after audition
• (2) mid-rehearsal
• (3) after dress rehearsal
• (4) after final production
• (5) two weeks after the final production

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Support for the SIA Longitudinal data (Haslam,
Waghorn, OSullivan, Jetten OBrien, under
review)

• Is social identification associated with reduced
  burnout and does this contribute to the long-term
  impact of stress?
• Social identification is relatively enduring

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Support for the SIA Longitudinal data (Haslam,
Waghorn, OSullivan, Jetten OBrien, under
review)

• Is social identification associated with reduced
  burnout and does this contribute to the long-term
  impact of stress?
• Low identifiers experience more burnout during
  critical phases of production (dress rehearsal,
  first performance).

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Support for the SIA Longitudinal data (Haslam,
Waghorn, OSullivan, Jetten OBrien, under
review)

• Is social identification associated with reduced
  burnout and does this contribute to the long-term
  impact of stress?
• Social identification is predictive of long-term
  organizational citizenship

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Support for the SIA Longitudinal data (Haslam,
Waghorn, OSullivan, Jetten OBrien, under
review)

• Is social identification associated with reduced
  burnout and does this contribute to the long-term
  impact of stress?
• Social identification is predictive of long-term
  work satisfaction

30
Support for the SIA Longitudinal data (Haslam,
Waghorn, OSullivan, Jetten OBrien, under
review)

• Is social identification associated with reduced
  burnout and does this contribute to the long-term
  impact of stress?
• Longitudinal design allows us to look at
  unfolding relationship between social
  identification, burnout and long- term well-being

org citizenship (T5)
.39
work satisfaction (T5)
social identification (T1)
.53

• Social identification has positive long-term
  impact because it protects group members from
  burnout during critical phases of group activity

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• Survey of hospital workers in first UK
  organization to be served with a stress
  improvement notice by HSE
• (N 1090/ 2379 45).

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• Stress Assessment Process and Tools
• What to measure?
• How to assess?
• How to ensure accurate, relevant, platform for
  change leading into effective (engaging)
  interventions
• Response
• Designing, implementing and enacting an
  intervention that works with, and promotes social
  identities (team, organizational, professional)
  rather than against them
• Translating into embedded practice rather than
  just formal policy

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• What to measure
• (a) the HSE criteria
• 1. Can you cope with job demands? (85)
• 2. Do you have say in how you work? (85)
• 3. Do you receive adequate information/support
  from colleagues and superiors? (85)
• 4. Are you subjected to unacceptable behaviour
  (e.g., bullying)? (65)
• 5. Do you understand your role and
  responsibilities? (65)
• 6. Are you involved in organizational change?
  (65)
• (b) relevant theoretical constructs (e.g.,
  states, outcomes)
• (c) relevant organizational issues (e.g.,
  training, supervision)

Fine 20,000
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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• The process
• Interviews with key staff (groups)
• Drafts of survey to staff
• Meetings to inform staff about process and
  addressing concerns
• Feeding back findings

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• (a) the HSE criteria (b) theoretical constructs
  
• 3. Do you receive adequate information/support
  from colleagues and superiors?
• A lack of adequate information from colleagues
  and managers
• Please indicate the extent to which
• You have experienced (0 not at all 4
  constantly)
• Your workgroup has experienced (0 not at all 4
  constantly)
• Is this issue a problem for you? (yes/no)

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• A lack of adequate information from colleagues
  and managers
• who say this is a problem

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• Extent to which you/your workgroup has
  experienced.

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)
(a) the HSE criteria (b) theoretical constructs
(c) organizational issues

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)
(a) the HSE criteria (b) theoretical constructs
(c) organizational issues
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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

Findings (note correspondence with previous
research)
reasonable demands
-.36
burnout
respectful treatment
-.31
.25
-.20
-.20
group identification
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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• Data modelling supports a causal model which
  suggests that
• burnout (b) is reduced by a combination of
• reasonable demands (rd),
• respectful treatment (rt)
• group identification (gi)
• However, group identification (gi) has its
  effects because it is a basis for giving and
  receiving group support (gs)

rd
rt
b
gs
gi

• This suggests that to reduce burnout, one should
  aim to reduce unreasonable demands, give
  employees more respectful treatment, and increase
  sense of group identification.

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)

• This suggests that to reduce burnout, one should
  aim to reduce unreasonable demands, give
  employees more respectful treatment, and increase
  sense of group identification.

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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)
Response

• Key issue Overcoming cynicism and engaging
  employees
• To what extent do you think attempts to deal with
  stress.

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An ASPIRe-based response (Haslam et al., 2003,
OBrien, et al., 2004)

• (a) identify issues that contribute to stress for
  different workgroups
• (b) work with groups to identify strategies and
  structural changes which they believe will enable
  demands to be managed more effectively (using an
  approach which enhances respectful treatment,
  group identification, and group support).
• (c) bring representatives of groups together to
  ensure that strategies and changes are
  compatible, and that they are integrated into a
  policy that everyone understands and respects.

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An ASPIRe-based response (Haslam et al., 2003,
OBrien, et al., 2004)
Actualizing Social and Personal Identity Resources
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HSE-driven case study (OBrien, Haslam,
Humphrey, OSullivan Jetten, in prep)
Response
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An ASPIRe-based response (Haslam et al., 2003,
OBrien, et al., 2004)

• However, to be effective, this requires
• (a) commitment from employees (employees have to
  want to participate in this process)
• (b) institutional support (employees need to
  believe that SMGs are committed to the process
  and its outcomes)
• (c) support from external agencies (who
  appreciate that meeting targets creates demands
  that have to be appropriately resourced)

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Further reading

• Haslam, S. A. (2004). Psychology in
  organizations The social identity approach (2nd
  ed.) London, UK Thousand Oaks, CA Sage.
• Haslam, S. A. Eggins, R. A., Reynolds, K. J.
  (2003). The ASPIRe model Actualizing Social and
  Personal Identity Resources to enhance
  organizational outcomes. Journal of Occupational
  and Organizational Psychology, 76, 83-113
• Haslam, S. A., Postmes, T., Ellemers, N.
  (2003). More than a metaphor Organizational
  identity makes organizational life possible.
  British Journal of Management, 14, 357-369.
• OBrien, A.T., Haslam S. A., Jetten, J.,
  Humphrey, L., OSullivan, L., Postmes, T.,
  Eggins, R. A., Reynolds, K. J. (2004). Cynicism
  and disengagement among devalued employee groups
  The need to ASPIRe. Career Development
  International (Special Issue on Knowledge-based
  economies in a networked world), 9, 28-44.