Altruism: An Evolutionary Paradox

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AltruismAn Evolutionary Paradox?

• Laura Manning Claire OCallaghan

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Definitions

• Term originated with Auguste Comte sympathetic
  instincts, (1851)
• Altruism is a motivational state with the
  ultimate goal of increasing anothers welfare,
  (Batson, 1991)
• Concern and help for others that asks nothing in
  return, (Myers,1993)
• Acting to increase another individuals lifetime
  number of offspring at a cost to ones own
  survival and reproduction, (Krebs Davies,
  1993265)
• A helpful act that is carried out in the absence
  of obvious and tangible rewards, (Schroeder,
  1995)
• Evolutionary altruism/Vernacular altruism
• Opposite of egoism?

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Degrees of Altruism

• Egoistic Altruistic

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Our Definition

• No true altruism (Alexander, 1979)

• Behaviour carried out to benefit another
  without anticipation of rewards from external
  sources,
• (Macaulay Berkowitz, 1970)

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The Paradox

• True altruism is biologically paradoxical in
  that any genetic inclination towards
  self-sacrifice must exist in spite of that
  sacrifice, (Wilson, 19753)

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The Selfish Gene(Dawkins, 1989)

• Do selfish genes lead to non-selfish people?
  (Barrett et al, 2002)
• the animal can be regarded as a machine designed
  to preserve copies of the genes inside it
• (Ridley Dawkins, 1984)

• Altruist genes (Schroeder, 1995)

• Cultural vs Genetic - Memes vs Genes

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Cultural Explanations

• Learnt behaviour
• - Norms of social behaviour
• - Consequences e.g. Warm glow theory
  (Alexander, 1979), guilt (Trivers, 1971),
  judgement by society

Altruism is essential for the existence of
society (Rushton, 1980viii)

• Why does society/culture need this adaptation?

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Do Unto Others

• To help others in their straits to rescue
  them from their
• perils Taoism
• we put well-being of other people and of all
  nature first.
• Fools Crow, (Native-American religion)
• You should love your neighbour as yourself. Old
  Testament
• and as you wish that men would do to you, do so
  to
• them. New Testament
• What you do not want done to yourself,
• do not do to others. Judaism
• Do naught to others which if done to
• thee would cause thee pain this is the
• sum of duty. Hinduism (Rushton, 1980)

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Which Helps Us To Adapt More Efficiently?

• Genetic Evolution Cultural Evolution
• Unit of Selection gene (DNA) meme (ideas,
  beliefs)
• Rate of Mutation slow, constant fast, variable
• Mechanism of Inheritance biological
  reproduction imitation, teaching
• Mode of Transmission vertical vertical,
  horizontal, oblique
• Heritability low low-moderate
• Generation Length moderate variable
  (instantaneous-millenia)
• Rate of Evolution slow variable
  (instantaneous-very slow)
• (Barrett et al, 2002)

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Culture vs Genes Summary

• Learnt behaviour versus innate
• Memes or genes?
• Genetically disposed to altruism

• Sociobiology the systematic study of the
  biological basis of all social behaviour,
  (Rushton, 1980)

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3 Main Theories

• Group Selection
• Kin Selection
• Reciprocal Altruism

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Kin Selection

• Altruistic behaviour to those related to the
  individual
• Examples insect cooperative brood care, warning
  calls (Rushton, 1980)

• Hamiltons Rule (Hamilton, 1964) solution to
  the paradox
• r B gt C
• Evolution is affected by relatedness
• Haldanes example

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Hamiltons Theory Continued

• Inclusive fitness theory increasing fitness
  directly or indirectly
• Genes eye view of the world, (Barrett et al,
  2002)
• Plotkins summary (1998)

• This theory limits altruism to relatives how can
  we account for altruism towards non-relatives?

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Reciprocal Altruism

• First proposed by Darwin
• Reciprocal cooperation occurs when the overall
  benefits of receiving help exceed the costs of
  donating help, (Trivers, 1971)
• Alternating the roles of donor and recipient
  (Stevens Hauser, 2004)
• Benefits
• How to Win Friends and Influence People (Dale
  Carnegie, 1936)

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• Generalized altruism/indirect reciprocity
  (Trivers, 1971)
• Cognitive abilities necessary
• Empathy the vicarious experiencing of an emotion
  which is congruent with, but not necessarily
  identical to, the emotion another person is
  experiencing (Barnett, 1987, p113 Schroeder et
  al, 1995)

• Cheater Detection (Fisherman, 2003)
• Tit-for-tat (Axelrod, 1984)
• Takes two to tango?

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Summary of 2 Types

• 20 years biologically, conceptually and even
  morally distinct, (Humphreys, 19971)

• Not separate phenomena a continuum of
  possibilities, (Humphreys, 1997207 Rothstein,
  1980)
• Non-altruist Kin selection Reciprocal
  altruism

• Conditional Strategies (Trivers, 1971)
• Interacting only with relatives
• Interacting only with those who have reciprocated
  in the past
• To avoid receiving threats of sanctions
  (harassment or punishment guilt?)
  (Blurton-Jones, 1984)

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Conclusion

• TRUE altruism doesnt exist therell always be
  benefits
• Warm-fuzzy feeling as an
• evolutionary mechanism
• Culture and genes
• Language possibly developed partially as a
  necessity for the enhancement of cooperation,
  (Rushton, 198027)

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Conclusion

• Problems
• Definition
• Animals versus humans
• How do you explain cross-species altruism?
• Anthropomorphising

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The Future

• Do we still need this adaptation?
• Will altruism die out?

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References

• Axelrod, R. (1984). The Evolution of Cooperation.
  Basic Books New York.
• Barrett, L., Dunbar, R., Lycett, J. (2002).
  Human Evolutionary Psychology. Palgrave
  Basingstoke.
• Dawkins. (1989). The Selfish Gene.
• Fisherman, M. (2003). Indirect reciprocity among
  imperfect individuals. Journal of Theoretical
  Biology. 225285-292.
• Humphrey, N. (1997) Varieties of altruism - and
  the common ground between them. Social Research
  64pp. 199-209.
• Khalil, E. (2003). What is altruism? A reply to
  critics. Journal of Economic Psychology.
  25141-143.
• Krebs, J. Davies, N. (1993). An Introduction to
  Behavioural Ecology. Blackwell Oxford.
• Moore, J. (1984). The evolution of reciprocal
  sharing. Ethol. Sociobiol. 5 5-14.
• Plotkin, H. (1998). Evolution in Mind An
  introduction to evolutionary psychology. Harvard
  University Press Massachusetts.

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References

• Rothstein, S. (1980). Reciprocal altruism and kin
  selection are not clearly separable phenomena.
  Journal of Theoretical Biology. 87255-261.
• Rushton, J. (1980). Altruism, Socialization, and
  Society.
• Schroeder, D ... et al. (1995). The Psychology
  of Helping and Altruism Problems and puzzles.
  McGraw-Hill London.
• Stevens, J. Hauser, M. (2004). Why be nice?
  Psychological constraints on the evolution of
  cooperation. Trends in Cognitive Psychology. 8,
  260-65.
• Triandis, H. (1994). Culture and Social
  Behaviour. McGraw Hill US
• Trivers, R. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal
  altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology. 4635-57.
  
• Walker, C. (2003). A charitable view of altruism
  commentary on What is altruism? by Elias
  Khalil. Journal of Economic Psychology.
  23129-134.
• Wilkinson, G. (2003). A reply to Elias Khalils
  What is altruism?. Journal of Economic
  Psychology. 25 125-127.