Research and Communication Techniques

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Research and Communication Techniques

• Chapter 7 Qualitative Results Analysis
• Dr Brett Stevens
• e-mail Brett.Stevens_at_port.ac.uk
• phone [phone]
• address West Wing, Eldon Building
• notes http//techfaculty.port.ac.uk/rectp/index.
  htm/

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Last Week(s)
Title Abstract Keywords   Introduction   Method
Design Participants Materials/
Apparatus Procedure Results Discussion Conclu
sions References

• So far we have looked at the first sections of
  writing the report.
• Including the quantitative analysis of data.

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This Week
Title Abstract Keywords   Introduction   Method
Design Participants Materials/
Apparatus Procedure Results Discussion Conclu
sions References

• The QUALITATIVE analysis of data.
• The underlying assumptions.
• The types of data.
• The methods for analysis.

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Research Paradigms
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Normative Paradigms

• Positivist approaches assume a truth (normal)
  against which to measure.
• Quantitative research isolates a phenomenon and
  studies its cause(s).
• Aims to predict and control.

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Interpretive Paradigms

• Interpretive research understands a phenomenon
  within its environment.
• Although Qualitative research can take place in
  a positivist paradigm, it is more likely to
  take place in one of the many (and subtlety
  different) interpretive paradigms such as

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Critical Theory

• Social Science applications.
• Similar to Post-Modernism, but the latter does
  not advocate change.
• Aims to critique and transform.

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Constructivism

• Social Science applications.
• Aims to understand differing viewpoints and form
  a synergy between them.

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Summary so far

• The paradigm sums up the researchers view of
  reality and hence the interactions with it and
  the researched phenomenon that are possible.
• This is accessed via a set of accepted research
  methods, and its those that we shall discuss
  shortly.
• But first..

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Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research is used to analyse how or
  why certain phenomena occur not just a measure of
  how often
• (or how long, or how big etc).
• However 
• It must take place in a natural setting
• (A phenomenon is embedded in its environment)
• The results are mediated by the question AND who
  asks it.
• (Reality is altered or constructed by
  research)
• It must include multiple demonstrations of the
  same conclusion
• (As interpretive it is open to bias)

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Qualitative Research Methods

• Given those assumptions there is a wide range of
  possible sources of data, such as

Questionnaires Interviews Journal or
Diary. Focus Groups. Non-participant
observation Participant observation Verbal
Protocols Introspection and Personal Experience
Artefacts, documents and records Spoken or
written narratives (stories but not generally
fictional) Visual Methods (photography,
painting, filming etc) Field notes Audio
recordings

• However, they all brake down into 3 types
• Textual
• Visual
• Audio

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Textual Research Methods

• The most common forms of research that relate to
  computing, are methods relating to the analysis
  of language as information.
• The textual data can come from a wide variety of
  sources but Typically for computer science it
  may be from a usability interview.!
• It has to be in a written textual form to perform
  the analysis. Thus, spoken or other audio text
  will have to be transcribed into a written
  document.
• Two different approaches to textual analysis.
  The analysis of content and the analysis of
  structure (discourse).

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Analysing Content

• Content analysis involves the systematic and
  selective reduction of a body of text (known as a
  corpus) by coding into a (small) number of
  conceptual categories. These categories are then
  analysed.
• Procedure
• Select (and transcribe) the text of interest,
  based on the research question.
• Decide how the materials will be segmented into
  the units of analysis.
• Code ALL segments in the sample according to the
  (piloted and revised) coding framework.
• Analyse the data (Either frequency counts or by
  defining the usage of a word or phrase.)
• Content analysis aims to discover the world view
  of a participant with respect to a phenomenon.

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Analysing Discourse

• Discourse analysis focuses on a range of
  approaches that evaluate text (written or spoken)
  as a process for presenting information.
• Procedure
• Formulate you initial research questions.
• Choose the texts to be analysed.
• Transcribe the text in detail (using a formal
  scheme).
• Sceptically read and interrogate the text.
• Code - as inclusively as possible.
• Analyse - (a) examine regularity and variability
  in the data, and (b) forming tentative
  hypotheses.
• Check reliability and validity throughout.
• These easy steps belie the fact that discourse
  analysis is a craft skill

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Visual Research Methods

• There are two broad distinctions in the visual
  data category.
• Static visual data
• Moving visual data.
• There are many methods for analysing both,
  although we are only going to look at one for
  each of them.

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Semiotics

• The basic unit is a sign.
• This contains the signifier (the sound image)
  and
• The signified (the concept or idea).

•  Procedure
• Choose the material (Photographs, pictures,
  perhaps screen shots of web pages)
• Create the denotational inventory (a list of
  picture elements, text etc
• Look for higher level significance (what
  connotations does an element have by itself? in
  conjunction with other elements?)
• Decide when to stop (Ensure the research question
  is answered, but do not over analyse)
• Select reporting forms (Use of tables, diagram,
  discourse etc)

• The value of a term depends on
• The associative relations (defined w.r.t. the
  alternatives) and
• The syntagmatic relations (defined w.r.t. other
  terms in the same structure).
• The signifier could
• Be a denotation of the representation of the
  signified (requires anthropological knowledge).
• Represent a higher order concepts via connotation
  (access to the cultural lexicon is required).
•  

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Analysing Moving Pictures

• Moving images include a vast amount of
  information not even previously available in text
  or images, although the basic procedures can be
  extended from semiotics and content analysis.
• Procedure
• Define the question and choose the material based
  on a defined framework (May require a large
  review of material before choosing examples).
• Construct the transcription rules (including
  visual and verbal material) and transcribe the
  material according to the unit of analysis.
• Construct the coding system (The code will need
  to be developed from the research question),
  including a coding framework for the visual and
  verbal material.
• Apply the coding system to the transcript to get
  numerical results
• Construct frequency tables and perform
  statistical analysis
• The transcription of the material becomes a
  fundamental problem, as in all instances the
  transcription process will lose some information.

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Other / Multiple Sources

• Audio Data includes music and non-musical sounds
  (Although sometimes it is difficult to tell them
  apart!). This, is not entirely relevant to
  Computing.
• One thing to note is that the methods described
  previously are examples, and many more exist.
  Moreover, they can be used in conjunction with
  each other to build a fuller picture of a
  phenomenon.

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Tutorial
In conjunction with your fellow researchers
(group members) analyse the following
audio-visual material.