Contents

1
Title Page
Contents
Index
2
Table of Contents
Index
Theropod Dinosaurs
Deuterostome Relationships
Relationships of the Synapsids
Sauropodomorpha
Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Cynodont Relationships
Ornithischian Dinosaurs
Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
Jawed Fishes
Relationships of the Basal Birds
The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
Placodermi
Neognath Relationships
Chondrichthyan Relationships
Relationships of the Basal Primates
Acanthodii
Relationships of Apes and Humans
Index
Human Relationships
Actinopterygian Relationships
Testudines
Relationships of Neopterygii
Major Diapsid Groups
Sarcopterygiian Relationships
Lepidosauria
Phylogeny of the Devonian Tetrapods
Archosaur Diversification
Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
Crocodylomorpha
Relationships of Early Amniotes
3
Deuterostome Relationships
Index
Home
4
Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Index
GNATHOSTOMATA
Home
5
Jawed Fishes
Index
Home
6
Placodermi
Index
Arthrodira
Home
7
Chondrichthyan Relationships
Index
Home
8
Acanthodii
Index
Home
9
Actinopterygian Relationships
Index
Home
10
Relationships of Neopterygii
Index
Home
11
Sarcopterygiian Relationships
Index
Home
12
Phylogeny of the Devonian Tetrapods
Index
CROWN-GROUP TETRAPODS
Metaxygnathus
Acanthostega
Ichthyostega
Ventastega
Tulerpeton
TETRAPODA
13
Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
Index
Home
14
Relationships of Early Amniotes
Index
15
Relationships of the Synapsids
Index
Home
16
Cynodont Relationships
Index
Home
17
Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
Index
Home
18
The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
Index
Home
19
Relationships of the Basal Primates
Index
Home
20
Relationships of Apes and Humans
Index
Home
21
Human Relationships
Index
Home
22
Testudines
Index
Home
23
Major Diapsid Groups
Index
Home
24
Lepidosauria
Index
Home
25
Archosaur Diversification
Index
Home
26
Crocodylomorpha
Index
Home
27
Theropod Dinosaurs
Index
Home
28
Sauropodomorpha
Index
Home
29
Ornithischian Dinosaurs
Index
Home
30
Relationships of the Basal Birds
Index
Home
31
Neognath Relationships
Index
Home
32
Urochordata
Index

• Tunicates/ Sea Squirts
• Adults are sedentary, but larvae have chordate
  basics

Deuterostome Relationships
Home
33
Cephalochordata
Index

• Myomeres
• Notochord goes all the way to the head
• Head isnt distinct
• Pharynx with gill slits
• Mode of life- buries itself in the sediment and
  filter feeds

Deuterostome Relationships
Home
34
Hemichordata
Index

• Pterobranchs
• Gill slits
• Anus located at the posterior end of the body

• Enteropneusts
• Acorn worms
• Live within the sediment
• Gill slits/ Proboscus

Deuterostome Relationships
Home
35
Myllokunmingiida
Index

• Early Cambrian 525-520 MA
• Chengjiang fauna- China

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
36
Myxinoidea
Index

• hagfish
• Pennsylvanian (300 MA- present)
• Ability to knot itself in order to tear flesh
  from its prey
• single semicircular canal in its ear
• eyes are small and not very useful

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
37
Petromyzontida
Index

• Pennsylvanian (300 MA- present)
• lampreys
• parasitic
• two semicircular canals in its ear

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
38
Conodonta
Index

• Early Cambrian (540 MA) to Late Triassic (230
  MA)
• teeth elements very useful in worldwide relative
  timelines
• teeth made of apatite

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
39
Astrapsida
Index

• Middle Ordovician (450 MA)
• Heavily armoured fishes

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
40
Arandaspida
Index

• Late Ordovican- Bolivia
• Heavily armoured fishes

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
41
Heterostraci
Index

• Early Silurian to Late Devonian
• Heavily armoured fishes

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
42
Anaspida
Index

• Late Silurian to Late Devonian
• Jawless and lack heavy armour
• 1st group with paired fins
• May be a polyphyletic group

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
43
Thelodonti
Index

• Ordovician to Early Devonian

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
44
Osteostraci
Index

• Ordovician to Early Devonian

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
45
Galeaspida
Index

• Ordovician to Early Devonian

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
46
Pituriaspida
Index

• Ordovician to Early Devonian

Basal Vertebrate Relationships
Home
47
Pseudopetalichthyida
Index

• Early Devonian
• found in the Rheinland
• few taxa
• most primitive placoderms
• large pectoral fins
• light armour

Placodermi
Home
48
Ptyctodontida
Index

• strong deep-set crushing jaws
• long bodies with whip-like tails
• large heads and eyes
• resemble sharks
• sexual dimorphisms- males have claspers
• well preserved endoskeleton

Placodermi
Home
49
Acanthothoracida
Index

• only known from Australia
• great preservation of the body
• Eyestalks
• Long-snouted with high headshield crests
• displays nerves and muscles similar to modern
  fish

Placodermi
Home
50
Rhenanida
Index

• flattened like skates and rays but not related
• Large pectoral fins

Placodermi
Home
51
Petalichthyida
Index

• small compared to most placoderms
• widely spaced fins
• linear ornaments on dermal plates
• elaborate lateral line system
• probably bottom dwellers, but mouthparts havent
  been preserved

Placodermi
Home
52
Antiarchi
Index

• very successful group
• 20-30 cm but up to 1 m long
• pectoral fins enclosed in segmented dermal
  armour- almost like lobster claws
• single opening in the head contains both the
  eyes and nostrils

Placodermi
Home
53
Phyllolepida
Index

• flattened and heavily armoured

Placodermi
Home
54
Arthrodira
Index

• huge tooth plates
• very large predators
• nuchal gap- complex ball and socket arrangement
  that allows side to side movement of the head

Placodermi
Home
55
Holocephali
Index

• Chimaerids
• small number of tooth plates (2 upper and 1
  lower)
• Durophageous dentition used to crush hard prey
• Rat tails
• Pectoral fins are large

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
56
Chondrenchelyiformes
Index

• Long eel-like bodies
• Small heads
• Autostylic jaw suspension

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
57
Iniopterygiformes
Index

• Upper Carboniferous of the Midwest
• Flap through the water
• Huge pectoral fins mounted dorsally
• One element at the base of the fin
• Spiny denticles on leading edge of fin

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
58
Cladoselachidae
Index

• Heterocercal tail
• Multicusped teeth
• 2 m long
• No scales on their bodies

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
59
Stethacanthidae
Index

• Dorsal fin has a dermal brush covered with
  denticles
• Parts of the base are covered with dentine

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
60
Eugeneodontiformes
Index

• tooth whorls with baby teeth located at the
  center of the whorl

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
61
Petalodontiformes
Index

• Tall, flattened body shape
• Teeth used for crushing

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
62
Hybodontiformes
Index

• Dominant elasmoform from Triassic to Cretaceous
• Elongate heterocercal tail
• Enormous dorsal spines in both dorsal fins
• Sluggish swimmers

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
63
Galeomorphi
Index
Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
64
Hexanchiformes
Index

• 6 or 7 gill slits (as compared to the 5 that
  most sharks have)

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
65
Squaliformes
Index
Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
66
Squantiformes
Index

• Wing is one large pectoral fin
• specialized for bottom feeding
• hole between palatoquadrate and hyomandibular
  element called the spiracle allows them to breath
  through ventrally located gills

Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
67
Batoidea
Index
Chondrichthyan Relationships
Home
68
Ischnacanthiformes
Index

• Predators with tooth-like structures on the jaws
• Have smaller fin spines with webbing
• Could move their fins

Acanthodii
Home
69
Climatiiformes
Index

• oldest clade in the fossil record
• Most elaborate armour
• Paired fins all up and down the belly- no
  skeleton associated with it

Acanthodii
Home
70
Acanthodiformes
Index

• have webbing
• no teeth
• big gill slits may indicate a filter-feeding
  lifestyle

Acanthodii
Home
71
Psarolepis
Index
Jawed Fishes
Home
72
Cheirolepididae
Index

• Late Devonian
• Large nuchal gap
• Small predator
• Lingual and palatal teeth for crushing
• Pectoral fins not very mobile

Actinopterygian Relationships
Home
73
Polypteridae
Index

• Heavily armoured ganoid scales
• Found today in African lakes and streams
• Dorsal finlets, each with a spine

Actinopterygian Relationships
Home
74
Mimiidae
Index
Actinopterygian Relationships
Home
75
Acipenseridae
Index

• Large fish found in northern waters
• 1-6 m long
• Poorly ossified
• Scales in five rows of bony plates
• Pectoral fin spines

Actinopterygian Relationships
Home
76
Polyodontidae
Index

• Large sensory paddles
• Specialized for filter feeding
• No plates or spines

Actinopterygian Relationships
Home
77
Saurichthyiformes
Index
Actinopterygian Relationships
Home
78
Lepisosteidae
Index

• Warm, freshwater predators
• 1-2 m long
• Long premaxilla with numerous teeth
• Hasnt changed since the Cretaceous!

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
79
Semionotidae
Index
Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
80
Amiidae
Index

• Long dorsal fin
• Symmetrical tail, not quite homocercal
• Appearance of a new jaw element, the symplectic

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
81
Pachycormidae
Index

• Large (10 m) filter feeders
• Ossified gill arches bearing 100s of teeth
• Most basal of the teleost fishes

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
82
Ichthyodectidae
Index
Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
83
Osteoglossomorpha
Index

• Bony tongues
• Bite shifted from maxilla and lower jaw to bony
  tongue
• Toothed brachials
• Tongue bites against teeth on the roof of the
  mouth

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
84
Elopomorpha
Index

• Eel-like forms and tarpons
• Leptocephalus larval stage

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
85
Clupeomorpha
Index

• Herrings

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
86
Ostariophysia
Index

• The lab rat of the fish world is the zebrafish
  Danio rerio

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
87
Salmoniformes
Index

• Males form a kipe (hook-like jaw) during
  breeding season

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
88
Esociformes
Index
Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
89
Percomorpha
Index

• Very diverse group
• Stiff, spiny fins
• Examples Albacore tuna, Leafy seadragon, Yellow
  boxfish

Relationships of Neopterygii
Home
90
Dipnoi
Index

• Typical lungfish appear in the Devonian, but
  burrows known back to the Permian
• In more derived forms there is one continuous
  fin covering the back
• Tooth plates- no teeth on premaxilla or maxilla
• Palatoquadrate fused to the braincase
• Feeding adaptations for durophagy
• enlarged adductor muscles
• Anterior dorsal fin is lost
• Trend to simpler skulls over time
• Marine and freshwater forms

Sarcopterygiian Relationships
Home
91
Actinista
Index

• Coelacanths
• Middle Devonian to recent
• First dorsal fin is unlobed
• Homocercal tail with three lobes
• Little evolutionary change since the Devonian
• No fossil record after the Cretaceous until
  1938, when a living form was found for sale at a
  fish market

Sarcopterygiian Relationships
Home
92
Rhizodontida
Index

• Very large river predators
• Tusk-like fangs at jaw tips
• 1st appearance of the tetrapod limb skeletal
  arrangement in pectoral fins
• Pectoral fins were unusually large
• Examples Strepsodus, Sauripterus

Sarcopterygiian Relationships
Home
93
Tristichopteridae
Index

• Common medium sized freshwater predators from
  the Devonian to the Carboniferous
• Very mobile intercranial joint
• Characteristeric 3-pointed symmetrical tail

Sarcopterygiian Relationships
Home
94
Elpistostegalids
Index

• Almost limb fins
• Eyes high on the head
• First neck- head is separate from the shoulder
  girdle
• Fin web much smaller
• Loss of dorsals
• Minimal tail fins
• Tiktaalik roseae

Sarcopterygiian Relationships
Home
95
Acanthostega
Index

• Reproduction still in water
• Paired fins are heavily modified for terrestrial
  locomotion with digits and well-defined joints
• Girdles more robust and firmly attached to
  vertebral column
• Presumes increase in lung efficiency and surface
  area
• Massive ribs supported the body on land-
  probably indicates breathing by buccal pumping
  instead of costal ventilation
• Sensory upgradse include changes in the eyes and
  modification of the homandibular to aid in hearing

Phylogeny of the Devonian Tetrapods
Home
96
Crassigyrinidae
Index

• Carboniferous forms have a deep otic notch to
  accommodate a tympanum
• Deep skulls, large fangs
• Reduced forelimbs
• Flattened tail with a broad fin

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
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97
Baphetidae
Index

• Small orbit with pointed structure to house
  glands or muscles
• Retains the lateral line system found in fish
• 6 large fangs in the palate
• Flat skull

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
Home
98
Gymnophiona
Index

• Worm-like burrowers
• Lost all limbs
• Solidly built skull
• Up to 200 vertebrae

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
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99
Anura
Index

• Frogs and toads
• Anura means no tail
• Unique locomotion
• Flexible pelvis
• Posterior vertebrae fused to form a urostyle

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
Home
100
Urodela
Index

• Newts and salamanders
• More generalized amphibian morphology
• Long body and flattened tail for swimming
• Teeth are bicuspid

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
Home
101
Microsauria
Index

• Lizard-like, very terrestrial animals from the
  Carboniferous
• Long legs
• Small teeth, insectivores
• Some become secondarily aquatic

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
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102
Nectrida
Index

• Late Carboniferous newt-like animals
• Boomerang shaped skulls

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
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103
Aïstopoda
Index

• Carboniferous to Permian
• Snake-like- no limbs or girdles
• Many skull bones lost, especially in the back of
  the skull
• Vertebrae fused into a single element

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
Home
104
Seymouriamorpha
Index

• Early Permian
• Small terrestrial and aquatic forms
• Powerful limbs
• Body held high off the ground

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
Home
105
Diadectomorpha
Index

• Heavily built
• Masssive vertebrae and limb girdles
• Possibly the first terrestrial herbivore
• Peg-like teeth in front of mouth and blunt cheek
  teeth

Relationships of the Basal Tetrapods
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106
Pareiasauridae
Index

• Late Permian
• Large- 2-3 m
• Heavily built
• Tall neural spiines, massive neck muscles
• Heavy skull with broad frill
• First big terrestrial animals
• Girdles are longer instead of legs- used to hold
  body off the ground

Relationships of Early Amniotes
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107
Procolophonidae
Index

• Late Permian to Late Triassic
• Stocky body with a large braod skull
• Posterior edge of orbit for attachment of jaw
  adductors
• Quadratojugal expanded into a horn
• Blunt, peg-like teeth may indicate insectivory
• Broad teeth possibly used for digging

Relationships of Early Amniotes
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108
Mesosauridae
Index

• First aquatic amniotes
• Lower Permian of South America and South Africa
• Elongate, thin jaws
• Needle-like teeth intermesh for straining
• Laterally flattened tail
• Important as evidence used in Wegners theory of
  continental drift

Relationships of Early Amniotes
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109
Captorhinidae
Index

• Early to Late Permian
• Small animals with heart-shaped skulls
• Peg-like teeth in multiple rows
• Possible continued tooth replacement
• Last anapsid group before diapsid evolution

Relationships of Early Amniotes
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110
Araeoscelidia
Index

• Petrolacosaurus- the first diapsid

Relationships of Early Amniotes
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111
Weigeltisauridae
Index

• Euryapsid- skull has a single opening surrounded
  by thr squamosal, postorbital and the parietal-
  equivalent to the upper opening in diapsids

Relationships of Early Amniotes
Home
112
Younginiformes
Index
Relationships of Early Amniotes
Home
113
Protorosaurus
Index
Relationships of Early Amniotes
Home
114
Eothyrididae
Index

• 2 large caniniform teeth
• Premaxilla inclines anteriorly
• maxilla enters orbit

Relationships of the Synapsids
Home
115
Caseidae
Index

• Enlarged naris
• Premaxilla inclines anteriorly
• No caniniform teeth
• Very large pineal foramen
• Oddly tiny skull
• Jaw joint ventrally displaced
• Barrel chest may indicate fermentation feeding

Relationships of the Synapsids
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116
Varanopseidae
Index

• Long, low skull
• Legs more elongate
• Teeth extending very far posteriorly and lie
  below the temporal fenestra
• Pineal foramen may have allowed some light into
  the top of the skull for regulation of yearly or
  daily cycles

Relationships of the Synapsids
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117
Ophiacodontidae
Index

• Large predator with large skull
• High, narrow snout
• Orbit and temporal fenestra are small and placed
  high
• Nostrils empty into front of snout
• Notch between maxilla and premaxilla

Relationships of the Synapsids
Home
118
Edaphosauridae
Index

• Herbivore with cervical and dorsal spine sail
• Peg-like teeth
• Battery of crushing palatal teeth
• Small head

Relationships of the Synapsids
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119
Sphenacodontidae
Index

• Large 3 m carnivores
• Enormous jaw musculature
• Deep premaxillary notch
• Large teeth in deep sockets
• Cervical and dorsal spine sail

Relationships of the Synapsids
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120
Dinocephalia
Index

• Specialization of teeth within a single skull
• Both carnivorous and herbivorous lineages
• Short, robust limbs
• Carnivores had large canine tusks
• Herbivores had thickened skulls possibly for
  head-butting

Relationships of the Synapsids
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121
Dicynodontia
Index

• Dominant herbivores of the Late Permian
• Squat bodies with short tails
• High parietal crest for jaw muscle attachment
• Large paired canines
• Some forms lived in coiled burrows

Relationships of the Synapsids
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122
Gorgonopsida
Index

• Dominant carnivores in the Late Permian
• Gape of up to 90
• Anterior dentary very deep
• Superficially very cat-like

Relationships of the Synapsids
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123
Cynodonts
Index

• Well formed sagittal crest
• Complete secondary palate formed by medially
  directed maxillae
• Widely curved zygomatic arch
• Elaborated cheek teeth
• Double occipital condyle
• Dentary makes up most of the lower jaw
• Evolution of jawbones into inner ear bones

Home
Cynodont Relationships
124
Adelobasileus
Index
Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
Home
125
Sinoconodon
Index
Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
Home
126
Morganucodontidae
Index

• Obturator foramen provides another opening for
  muscle attachment

Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
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127
Kuehneotherium
Index

• Lower Jurassic, South Wales
• Teeth show a pattern of cusps thought to be the
  forerunner of tribospenic molars
• Molars exhibit a main central cusp and smaller
  accessory cusps

Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
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128
Monotremata
Index

• Lower Cretaceous to recent
• Retain many ancestral mammalian features
• Egg laying
• Interclavicle bone
• 2 coronoids on each side of shoulder
• Modern monotrems lack teeth as adults
• Monotremes also exhibit a tribosphenic tooth
  morphology, which creates crushing and shearing
  surfaces on the same tooth

Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
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129
Triconodonta
Index

• Pointed shearing molars with three main cusps in
  a line
• Slender head
• Ground dwelling insectivore
• Plantigrade posture and sprawling limbs
• Mobile shoulder girdle

Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
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130
Multituberculata
Index

• Late Jurassic to Eocene
• Largest group of Mesozoic mammals
• All were superficially rodent-like omnivores
• Large incisors, a gap with no canines and then
  cheek teeth
• Last lower premolar forms a unique shearing
  blade
• Lower jaw can slide backwards during chewing
  stroke generating a shearing action
• Epipubic marsupial bones

Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
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131
Marsupialia
Index

• Embryos are born early and finish gestation in
  a pouch (marsupium)
• Amazing morphological and ecological
  convergences with placental mammals
• In isolated Australia marsupials dominated the
  mammalian fauna
• In South America they dominated as insectivores
  with some carnivore and herbivore groups
• Possums still present in the Americas as well as
  a couple of small rodent-like forms

Relationships of the Mesozoic Mammals
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132
Tubulidentata
Index

• Aardvarks
• Tubular snouts
• Reduced teeth

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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133
Tenrecoidea
Index

• Small to cat-sized insectivores
• Some have spines

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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134
Macroscelidea
Index

• Elephant shrews
• Long rodent-like incisors
• Flexible trunk

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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135
Proboscidea
Index

• Reduce jugal
• Orbit opens into maxilla
• Enlarged 2nd upper incisors (tusks)
• Broad molar teeth with thickened ridges of
  enamel, dentine and cementum
• Trend towards increasing size and decreasing
  tooth number

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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136
Hyracoidea
Index

• Short-limbed herbivores that are superficially
  rabbit-like
• Short tusks
• Padded, four-fingered hands

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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137
Sirenia
Index

• All are large, stocky aquatic grazers
• First Sirenians (Eocene) still had legs
• Downturned snout and only four cheek teeth
• Thickened ribs for bouyancy and balance
• Forelimbs became paddles, hindlimbs greatly
  reduced
• Whale-like tail

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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138
Xenarthra
Index

• Armadillos, tree sloths and anteaters
• Have supplementary articulations in some trunk
  and tail vertebrae
• Robustly fused sacrum
• Teeth much reduced- few or no incisors (none in
  anteaters)

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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139
Lipotyphla
Index

• Hedgehogs, moles and shrews
• Small generalized insectivores
• W-shaped cusps on upper molars

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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140
Chiroptera
Index

• Megachiropterans- fruit bats
• Microchiropterans- small insect eaters
• earliest bat- Icaronycteris

• Bats- nearly 100 extant species
• Highly modified ears for echolocation
• Noctural fliers
• Wing formed by skin membrane between elongate
  fingers

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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141
Artiodactyla
Index

• Even toed ungulates
• Double pulley astralagus restricts leg movement
  to vertical plane
• Limbs slender and long
• Ruminents cattle, sheep, antelope, deer
• Ruminants regurgitate their food and lack upper
  incisors

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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142
Cetacea
Index

• Whales and dolphins
• Probably evolved from mesonychids
• Multiple adaptations for aquatic life aquired
  gradually
• 2 main extant groups Odontoceti (toothed
  whales) and Mysticeti (Baleen whales)
• Snout bones moved over top of skull
• Echolocation system

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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143
Perissodactyla
Index

• Odd-toed ungulates
• Horses, tapirs and rhinos

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
Home
144
Carnivora
Index

• united by molecular evidence
• Cats, dogs, hyenaes, weasels, seals
• Carnasial teeth upper premolar 4 and lower
  molar 1 enlarged as blades for shearing
• Some forms (hyeneas and dogs) have crushing
  molars
• Exact origin in question- perhaps evolved from
  creodonts

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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145
Pholidota
Index

• Pangolins
• Toothless, heavily armoured ant-eater-like
  creatures
• Skull reduced to a tube
• Narrow lower jaws

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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146
Scandentia
Index
The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
Home
147
Dermoptera
Index
The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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148
Rodentia
Index

• First appear 60 MYA
• 2000 extant species
• Large, deep-rooted incisors
• Incisors grow continuously
• Enamel on front face only- maintains sharp edge
• Long diastema
• Sigle premolar, 3 molars
• Elaborate chewing muscles
• Masseter moves rostrally

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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149
Lagomorpha
Index

• Rabbits, hares and pikas
• 2 upper incisors instead of one
• Chewing mechanics differ for rodents

The Phylogeny of Placental Mammals
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150
Proganochelyidae
Index

• Most primitive turtle group
• No head retraction
• Palatal teeth, but no teeth on the maxilla

Testudines
Home
151
Pleurodira
Index

• Only found in freshwater
• Southern hemisphere distribution
• Group includes matamatas and snake necks

Testudines
Home
152
Cryptodira
Index

• Soft shells and marine turtles
• Tortoises
• Skull has a central spine made of combined
  parietals and supraoccipitlas

Testudines
Home
153
Ichthyosauria
Index

• Early Triassic to Late Cretaceous
• Dolphin-like body shape and ecology
• Peg-like, uniform teeth
• Enormous eyes up to 30 cm
• Nostrils located near the eyes
• Extra phalanges
• Early forms still have sacral vertebrae fused as
  in a terrestrial pelvi
• Long thin beaks function like needle nose pliers
  indicating a diet of fish

Major Diapsid Groups
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154
Placodontia
Index

• Mid to Late Triassic
• Only fouund in marine sedimentary beds, but not
  specialized for swimming
• Unique durophagus dentition
• Weak girdles
• Dermal plates called scutes

Major Diapsid Groups
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155
Plesiosauria
Index

• Plesiosauroids- long necked forms with small
  skulls
• Pliosauroids- short necked forms with larger
  skulls

• Intermeshing teeth
• Jaw hinge below tooth row creates maximum bite
  force at the front of the jaw
• As many as 76 cervical vertebrae

Major Diapsid Groups
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156
Trilophosauridae
Index

• Late Triassic
• Heavily built skull
• Loss of lower temporal fenestra
• Flat shearing teeth

Major Diapsid Groups
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157
Rhynchosauria
Index

• Deep cheeks
• Triangular skull
• Premaxilla tusk
• Scissor teeth
• Digging claws
• Very common in Triassic faunas, sometimes up to
  50 of herbivores

Major Diapsid Groups
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158
Prolacertiformes
Index

• Mid Permian, but radiated in the Triassic
• 9-12 vertebrae in the neck
• Squid eaters

Major Diapsid Groups
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159
Sphenodontia
Index

• Tuatara- extant form, nocturnal insectivore
• Lower temporal bar still complete

Lepidosauria
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160
Iguania
Index

• Modern iguanas

Lepidosauria
Home
161
Gekkota
Index

• Modern geckos

Lepidosauria
Home
162
Amphisbaenia
Index

• Legless, snake-like body plan

Lepidosauria
Home
163
Serpentes
Index

• Also called Ophidia
• Snakes
• Uncertain phylogenetic position

Lepidosauria
Home
164
Anguimorpha
Index

• Monitor lizards and mosasaurs

Lepidosauria
Home
165
Scincomorpha
Index

• Modern skinks

Lepidosauria
Home
166
Proterosuchidae
Index

• Late Permian to Early Triassic
• Still retains sprawling posture
• Distinct premaxilla/ maxilla hook

Archosaur Diversification
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167
Erythrosuchidae
Index

• Early to Mid Triassic
• Top predators
• 3 prong pelvis with elongate pubis and ischium
• 4th trochnater

Archosaur Diversification
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168
Euparkeria
Index

• Mid Triassic of South Africa
• May have walked bipedially at times
• Antorbital fenestra with fossa embossed inward
• Osteoderms like crocodiles

Archosaur Diversification
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169
Rauisuchia
Index

• Mid to Late Triassic
• Panzer crocs
• Tall skulls with deep jaws
• Large recurved teeth
• Skull narrow side to side
• Some species up to 7 m long
• Specialized erect, fully upright gait

Archosaur Diversification
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170
Ornithosuchidae
Index
Archosaur Diversification
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171
Stagonolepididae
Index

• Late Triassic
• Aetosaurs
• First herbivorous archosaurs
• Blunt snout possibly used for digging
• Heavy armour
• Short, stout legs

Archosaur Diversification
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172
Phytosauridae
Index

• Late Triassic
• Crocodile-like
• Fish eaters with narrow jaws
• Nostrils on a mound near the eye
• Premaxilla elongate

Archosaur Diversification
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173
Scleromochlus
Index

• Upper Triassic in the UK
• Elongate tibia
• Bird-like metatarsals, but neck is short and
  ankle is simplified

Archosaur Diversification
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174
Pterosauria
Index

• Hollow bones- not well preserved
• Short body with reduced and fused hip bones
• Long necks
• Hand with 3 short fingers and an elongate fourth
• 4th finger supports distal wing membrane
• Pteroid bone in wrist to support anterior wing
  membrane
• Prepubis present
• Probably walked like modern bats

• 2 Main groups
• Rhamphorhynchoidea
• small with a long tail and not much trunk
  mobility
• more primitive
• Pterodactyloidea
• Larger with reduced tails
• Trend towards tooth loss

Archosaur Diversification
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175
Lagerpeton
Index

• Similar to Scleromochulus but slightly more
  primitive

Archosaur Diversification
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176
Marasuchus
Index

• S-curved neck
• Reduced calcaneum
• Open acetabulum

Archosaur Diversification
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177
Protosuchia
Index

• Secondary palate allowing breathing to occur
  simultaneouly with feeding
• Small, armoured animals with erect gaits
• Nostrils located at tip of the snout
• Palpebral bones (eyebrow bones)
• Maxilla elongate
• Triassic to Cretaceous

Crocodylomorpha
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178
Mesosuchia
Index

• Jurassic to Cretaceous
• Diverse terrestrial and aquatic forms

Crocodylomorpha
Home
179
Eusuchia
Index

• Jurassic to recent
• Most forms amphibious
• Includes modern crocodiles, alligators,
  gharials, gavials and caimans

Crocodylomorpha
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180
Herrerasauridae
Index

• Late Triassic
• Ischigualasto Formation, Argentina
• No astralagar flange
• only 2 sacral veterbrae (dinosaurs have a
  minimum of 3)

Theropod Dinosaurs
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181
Coelophysoidea
Index

• Long, narrow snouts
• Slender, elongate tails
• 5 sacral vertebrae
• Ischium is shorter than the pubis

Theropod Dinosaurs
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182
Dilophosaurus
Index

• Similar to Coelophysis except
• weak joint between maxilla and premaxilla
• Double crests on skull roof

Theropod Dinosaurs
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183
Ceratosauridae
Index

• Many had horns or crests perhaps used for sexual
  display

Theropod Dinosaurs
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184
Spinosauridae
Index
Theropod Dinosaurs
Home
185
Allosauridae
Index
Theropod Dinosaurs
Home
186
Coeluridae
Index

• Sinosauropteryx
• Early Cretaceous, China
• Compsognathus
• Late Jurassic, Germany

Theropod Dinosaurs
Home
187
Tyrannosauridae
Index

• Probably the largest predator ever
• Well-formed joint in lower jaw
• Tiny forelimbs with two digits
• 3 central metatarsals closely oppressed
  (arctometatarsal condition)

Theropod Dinosaurs
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188
Ornithomimidae
Index

• Slender bodies with small heads
• Elongate arms and legs
• 3 long fingers for grasping
• Loss of teeth in later forms
• Keratinous beak with ventral ridges like in
  ducks
• May have been omnivorous

Theropod Dinosaurs
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189
Alvarezsauridae
Index

• Small group from the Late Cretaceous
• Small bird-like head
• Reduced forearm with an unknown purpose
• Femur shorter than tibia

Theropod Dinosaurs
Home
190
Therizinosauridae
Index

• Large 4.5 m
• Heavily built pelvis and a short tail
• Long forelimbs with extremely elongate claws
• Powerful neck, but a small skull weak teeth,
  toothless rostrally
• Possibly herbivorous

Theropod Dinosaurs
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191
Oviraptorosauria
Index

• Highly fenestrate skull
• Shortened snout with a beak
• Some have palatal fangs

• Share many characteristics with birds
• Fused premaxillae
• 13 cervical vertebrae
• More than 8 sacral vertebrae
• Pygostyle- last caudal vertebrae are fused

Theropod Dinosaurs
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192
Troodontidae
Index

• Long slender skulls
• Orbits faced partially forward
• Brains large
• 3rd toe longest as in birds

Theropod Dinosaurs
Home
193
Dromaeosauridae
Index

• Hand nearly half the length of the arm (as in
  birds)
• Wrist unusually mobile
• Hands could be turned in towards each other
• Elongate 2nd toe with huge claws that could
  swing forward
• Many show evidence of long flight feathers on
  arm

Theropod Dinosaurs
Home
194
Thecodontosaurus
Index

• Lightly built herbivore
• 2.5 m long
• 1st animal displaying whole suite of
  sauropodomorph characteristics

Sauropodomorpha
Home
195
Plateosaurus
Index

• Large herbivore
• 7 m long
• Likely bipedal some of the time
• Hindlimbs twice the length of the forelimbs
• Low set jaw joint
• Gastroliths in stomach used to grind food

Sauropodomorpha
Home
196
Vulcanodontidae
Index

• Vulcanodon
• Early Jurassic, Africa
• General animal
• Very small for a sauropod

Sauropodomorpha
Home
197
Cetiosauridae
Index
Sauropodomorpha
Home
198
Diplodocoidea
Index

• Elongate neck held low
• Broad snout with cylindrical teeth set at the
  rostral end
• Teeth jut forward
• Steeply sloping quadrate

Sauropodomorpha
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199
Camarasauridae
Index

• internarial bar formed by narrow premaxilla

Sauropodomorpha
Home
200
Brachiosauridae
Index

• Head could reach up to 12 m above the ground
• High neural spines to raise the neck
• Lightweight cervical vertebrae
• Forelimbs longer than hindlimbs
• Shortened tail
• Up to 23 m long

Sauropodomorpha
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201
Titanosauridae
Index

• Skulls similar to Diplodocus
• Light armour of hexagonal bony plates
• Argentinosaurus may have reached 100 tonnes

Sauropodomorpha
Home
202
Pisanosaurus
Index

• Late Mid Triassic, Argentina
• Only known from a partial jaw

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
Home
203
Fabrosauridae
Index

• Early Jurassic, South Africa
• 1st definitive Ornitischian
• Generalized animals

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
Home
204
Scelidosaurus
Index

• Early Jurassic, Arizona

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
Home
205
Stegosauria
Index

• Very tiny skulls
• Scutes embedded in the skin
• hindlimbs much longer than forelimbs
• Arched backbone
• Triangular plates in alternating double row

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
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206
Ankylosauria
Index

• Heavy body armour
• Bony boss formed from fusion of last caudal
  vertebrea
• Hyperossification throughout body

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
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207
Pachycephalosauria
Index

• Thickened skull roof formed from fused parietals
  and frontals
• 2 supplementary supraorbital bones
• Broad reenforced pelvis with up to 8 sacral
  vertebrea

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
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208
Ceratopsia
Index

• Skull triangular in dorsal view
• Beak-like midline rostral bone
• High snout
• Broad parietals
• More derived forms become quadropedal

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
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209
Heterodontosauridae
Index

• Differentiated teeth with 2 incisors, a
  canine and 12 molars
• Lower canine tusks fit into notch in upper jaw

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
Home
210
Hypsilophodontidae
Index

• Lack of differentiated teeth of Heterodontosaurs
• Ossified tendons stifen tail for running
• Small generalist herbivores

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
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211
Iguanodon
Index

• Expanded prepubic process
• Reduced pubis
• Latticework of ossified tendons on neural spines
• Carpals and metacarpal I fused into a single
  wrist bone
• Digit 1 reduced to a thumb spike
• Small hooves on digits 2 and 3
• 1st dinosaur described from USA

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
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212
Ouranosaurus
Index
Ornithischian Dinosaurs
Home
213
Hadrosauridae
Index

• Expanded duck-like bills
• Nostrils long and low
• Orbit and lower temporal fenestra moved caudally
• Closely packed tooth batteries well back in
  mouth
• Postcranial skeleton is not well differentiated
• Skulls used to determine species, may have been
  used as a vocal resonator

Ornithischian Dinosaurs
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214
Archaeopteryx
Index
Relationships of the Basal Birds
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215
Jeholornis
Index

• Still has long tail
• Hand more specialized
• Seed eater (spermivory)
• Capable of powerful flight

Relationships of the Basal Birds
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216
Confusiusornithidae
Index

• Shortened tail and snout
• Sexual dimorphism
• Most basal toothless bird
• Very abundant specimens

Relationships of the Basal Birds
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217
Enantiornithes
Index

• Most successful Cretaceous bird group
• Not the lineage that led to modern birds
• Found in freshwater environments
• Alula- bastard wing- feathers on separate finger
  allowing the bird to fly slower

Relationships of the Basal Birds
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218
Patagopteryx
Index

• Intermediate between Enatiornithes and modern
  birds
• Reversion to flightlessness

Relationships of the Basal Birds
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219
Hesperornithiformes
Index

• Strong swimmers
• Flightless
• Have teeth

Relationships of the Basal Birds
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220
Ichthyornithiformes
Index

• Have teeth
• Seagull-like

Relationships of the Basal Birds
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221
Palaeognathae
Index

• Vomer bone is large
• Group includes giant moas (dinornis)
• Living forms include kiwis, emus and the tinamou
• Tinamou is the only modern paleognathid that can
  still fly

Relationships of the Basal Birds
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222
Duck group
Index

• First neognath group to radiate
• Includes ducks, geese, turkeys and pheasants,
  etc.

Neognath Relationships
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223
Water bird assemblage
Index

• Includes penguins, loons, herons, egrets and
  cranes, etc.

Neognath Relationships
Home
224
Miscellaneous birds
Index

• Includes owls, hummingbirds, cockatoos, eagles
  and falcons, etc.

Psittacopes- an early parrot
Neognath Relationships
Home
225
Woodpecker Outgroup
Index

• Includes woodpeckers, hornbills, puffbills and
  toucans, etc.

Neognath Relationships
Home
226
Songbirds
Index

• Includes swallows, titmice, parrots, blackbirds,
  crows and sparrows, etc.

Neognath Relationships
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227
Lemuriformes
Index

• Lemurs and Aye-ayes
• Mouse to cat sized
• Bushy tails
• Lower incisors and canines jut forward for
  feeding and grooming (tooth comb)
• Aye-ayes use their slender middle finger to
  catch termites
• Toilet claw on second toe to scrape the shit
  out of its fur

Home
Relationships of the Basal Primates
228
Lorisiformes
Index

• Lorises and Galagos
• Found as early as the Mid-Eocene of Egypt
• Slim arboreal animals
• Eyes very large and forward facing

Relationships of the Basal Primates
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229
Tarsiiformes
Index

• Eocene to recent
• Enlarged orbits
• Short snout
• Eyes dont reflect light at night

Relationships of the Basal Primates
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230
Platyrrhini
Index

• New world monkeys
• Include howler monkeys, spider monkeys and
  marmosets
• Platyrrhini- flat nose
• Oligocene to recent
• Broad, widely spaced nostrils
• Many have prehensile tails
• Known only from Central and South America

Relationships of the Basal Primates
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231
Cercopithecoidea
Index

• Macaques, baboons, mandrills, langurs
• Only two premolars in each jaw
• unique crests on molars

Home
Relationships of Apes and Humans
232
Proconsul
Index

• Early Miocene, East Africa
• monkey to gorilla sized
• Frugivore
• Found in forest habitats
• Neck shifitn to underneath the skull

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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233
Hylobatidae
Index

• Gibbons
• Most primitive of living apes
• No fossil record
• Probably very similar to Proconsul

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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234
Pongo
Index

• Modern orang-utans

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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235
Sivapithecus
Index

• Related to the Orangutan lineage and
  Gigantopithicus
• diastema almost completely closed up

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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236
Gorilla
Index

• Modern gorillas

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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237
Pan
Index

• Modern chimpanzees

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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238
Australopithecus
Index

• Australopithecus afarensis
• 3.8-3.2 MYA, Ethiopia and Tanznia
• Small (1-1.5 m high)
• Bipedal, but with long curved fingers indicating
  arboreal capabilities
• Frugivore
• Brain size comparable to modern chimps and
  gorillas
• Lucy

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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239
Homo
Index

• Homo habilis (2.4-1.6 MYA), East Africa
• Larger cranial capacity
• Smaller face and cheek teeth
• Possible second early species Homo rudolfensis
• Homo erectusi 2 MYA- 27,000 years
• African origin
• Broad geographic distribution due to migration

• Homo heidelbergensis 500,000 years BP
• Homo sapiens 200,000 years BP
• Homo sapiens neandertalensis 120,000-35,000
  years BP

Relationships of Apes and Humans
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240
Index
aardvarks Abelisauridae Acanthodidae Acanthodiform
es Acanthodii Acanthostega Acanthothoracida Acipen
ser Acipenseridae Actinista Actinopterygii Adapifo
rmes Adelobasileus Aegyptopithecus Aetosaurs Afrot
heria 'Agnatha' Aïstopoda Albanerpetontidae Albcor
e tuna Albertosaurus alligators Allodesmus Allosau
ridae Allosaurus Alvarezsauridae Alxasaurus Amblyp
teridae Amblypteridae Ambulocetus
Amia Amiidae Amniota Amphibamidae Amphicentridae A
mphioxus Amphisbaena Amphisbaenia Amphiuma Anapsid
a Anaspida Anatosaurus Anglaspis Anguilla Anguimor
pha Ankylosauria Ankylosaurus Anseriformes Antarct
osaurus anteaters antelope 'Anthracosauria' Anthro
poidea Antiarchi Antilocapra Anura Aornerpeton Apo
diformes Araeoscelidia Arandaspida
Archaeopteryx Archaeothyris Archonta Archosauria A
rchosauromorpha Arctognathus Ardeidae Ardeosaurus
Ardipithecus ramidus Argentinosaurus armadillos Ar
throdira Artiodactyla Aspidorhynchidae Astrapis As
trapsida Ateles Atherinomorpha Aulopiformes Ausktr
ibospenida Australochelidae Australopithecus Austr
alopithecus africanus Aves Avesuchia aye-ayes babo
ons baleen whales 'Baphetidae' Baptornis
Basilosaurus Bathygenys Batoidea Batrachia bats Be
lantsea Benneviaspis Bernissartia Biarmosuchia Bir
geriidae blackbirds Bolosauridae Boreaspis Boreoeu
theria Bothriolepis Brachiosauridae Brachiosaurus
'Branchiosauridae' Branchiostoma Brontops caecili
an caimans Camarasauridae Camarasaurus Capitosauri
a Caprimulgiformes Captorhinidae Captorhinus Carch
arocles Carcharodontosauridae
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241
Index
Carnivora Carnosauria Carnotaurus Caseidae Casuari
us Catarrhini Catopithecus cats cattle Centrosauru
s Cephalochordata Cephalodiscus Ceratopsia Ceratos
auridae Ceratosaurus Cercopithecoidea Cetacea Ceta
rtiodactyla Cetiosauridae Cetiosaurus Chalicotheri
um Charadriiformes Cheiracanthidae Cheirolepididae
Cheirolepis Chelydra Chimaerids chimpanzees Chini
quodontidae Chiroptera
Chondrenchelyiformes Chondrenchelys Chondrichthyes
Chondrosteidae Ciconiformes Cladocyclus Cladosela
che Cladoselachidae Climatidae Climatiiformes Clim
atius Clupea Clydagnathus Coccosteus cockatoos coe
lacanths Coelophysis Coelophysoidea Coeluridae Coe
lurosauravus Coelurosauria Coliidae Colosteidae Co
lumbia Columbiformes Compagopiscis Comsoganthus Co
ncornis Confuciusornis Confusiusornithidae
Conodonta Coraciiformes Cotylorhynchus cranes Cras
sigyrinidae Crassigyrinus crocodiles Crocodylia Cr
ocodylomorpha Crossopterygii crows Crurotarsi Cryp
toclidus Cryptodira Cryptoproctes Ctenacanthiforme
s Ctenochasma Ctenurella Cuculiformes Culmacanthid
ae Cynocephalus Cynodontia 'Cynodonts' Cynognathid
ae Danio rerio Dapedidae Dasypus deer Deinogalerix
Deinonychosauria
Deinonychus Deinotherium Delpyodontos Deltatheroid
a Dendrerpetontidae Dermoptera Deuterostomes Diaco
dexis Diadectes Diadectomorpha Diademodontidae Dia
psida Diatryma Dicynodontia Dilophosaurus Dilophos
aurus Dimetrodon Dimorphodon Dinocephalia Dinohyus
Dinornis Dinosauria Dinosauriformes Dinosauromorp
ha Diplacanthidae Diplocaulus Diplodocoidea Diplod
ocus Dipnoi Diprotodon
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242
Index
Dipterus Dissorophidae Docodonta Doedicurus dogs d
ogs dolphins Domnina Dorypteridae Drepanaspis Drom
aeosauridae Dromiceiomimus Dryolestoidea Dryopithi
cus Dsungaripterus Duck group duck-billed
platypus ducks Dunkleosteus Dusisiren Dvinosauria
Dyrosauridae eagles echidna Echinichimaera Echinod
ermata Edaphosauridae Edaphosaurus Edmontosaurus E
glonaspis
egrets Eigenerpeton Elasmobranchii elephant
shrews Elephantulus Elephas Elopomorpha emus Emydu
ra Enaliarctos Enantiornithes Enteropneusts Eocaec
ilia Eomanis Eomys Eosauropterygia Eothyridae Eoth
yris Epigaulus Elpistostegalids Erinaceus Errivasp
is Eryopidae Erythrosuchidae Esociformes Euarchont
oglires Eucynodontia Eudimorphodon Eugaleaspis Eug
eneodontiformes
Euhelopodidae Euoplocephalus Euparkeria Eurypharyn
x Euselachii Eusthenopteron Eusuchia Euteleostei E
uth