At a Glance: Sentences

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At a Glance Sentences
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Chapter 1

• Parts of Speech

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Nouns

• Nouns are naming words.
• They may name persons, animals, plants, places,
  things, substances, qualities, or ideas

Bart, armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock, cloud,
love, ghost, music, virtue
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Noun Indicators

• The, A, and An signal that a noun is ahead.

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Pronoun

• A word used in place of a noun

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Some pronouns may represent specific persons or
things

• I she they you
• me her them yourself
• myself herself themselves
  yourselves
• it he we who
• itself him us whom
• that himself ourselves

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Indefinite Pronouns

• Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in a
  general way
• each everyone nobody somebody

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Pronouns that Point Out Particular Things

• SINGULAR
• this
• that

• PLURAL
• these
• those

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Pronouns that Introduce Questions

• Who
• Which
• What

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Verbs

• Show action or express being in relation to the
  subject of a sentence.

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Types of Verbs

• Action verbs ate, washed
• Being verbs is, as, were, are, am
• Helping verbs are used with main verbs to form
  other tenses to form verb phrases
• had sung, will be singing
• Main helping verbs has, have, had, is, was,
  were, are, am
• Helpers will, shall, should, could

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Adjectives

• Modify nouns and pronouns and answer the
  questions
• What kind?
• Which one?
• How many?

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Adjectives

• What kind are descriptive words
• red, dirty, noisy, gentle, tired
• Which one narrows or restricts meaning
• my, our, other, this, these
• How many are numbering words
• some, three, each, one, few
• Articles are noun indicators
• a, an, the

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Adverbs

• Modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
• Answer the questions
• How?
• Where?
• When?
• To what degree?

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Adverbs that answer

• HOW? show manner or way
• WHERE? show location
• WHEN? indicate time
• TO WHAT DEGREE?
• express extent

• Hungrily, noisily
• Downtown, behind, upstairs
• Yesterday, soon
• Entirely, somewhat

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Adverbs

• Most words ending in ly are adverbs.
• Skillfully
• Courteously
• Exceptions are adjectives like lovely and ugly

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Prepositions

• Are words or groups of words that function as a
  connective
• The preposition connects its object(s) to some
  other word(s) in the sentence. A preposition and
  its objectusually a noun and a pronounwith
  modifiers make up a prepositional phrase, which
  will function as an adjective or an adverb.

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Common Prepositions

• about before but into
• past above behind by
• like to across below
• after despite near toward
• after beneath down of
• under against beside for
• off until among between
• from on upon around
• beyond in over with

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Prepositions Composed of More Than One Word

• According to
• As far as
• Because of
• In spite of
• Ahead of
• As well as

• In back of
• Instead of
• Along with
• Aside from
• In front of
• Together with

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Conjunctions

• A conjunction shows a relationship between words,
  phrases, or clauses

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Coordinating Conjunctions

• For
• And
• Nor
• But
• Or
• Yet
• So

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Subordinating Conjunctions

• After because provided whenever
• Although before since where
• As but that so that whereas
• As if if till wherever
• As long as in order that until
• As soon as notwithstanding when

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Interjection

• Conveys strong emotion or surprise
• Punctuated with an exclamation mark
• Awesome!
• Curses!
• Cowabunga!
• Yaba dabba doo!
• When appearing as part of a sentence,
  interjections are usually followed by a comma
• Oh, I did not consider that problem.
• Seldom appropriate for college writing.

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Chapter 2

• Subjects and Verbs

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Subjects and Verbs

• The subject is who or what causes the action or
  expresses a state of being.
• The verb indicates what the subject is doing or
  is being.

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Simple Subject

• Usually a single noun or pronoun
• The restaurants soup of the day is clam chowder.
• simple subject

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Complete Subject

• The simple subject with all its modifiers
• The restaurants soup of the day is clam chowder.
• complete subject

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Nouns

• Nouns are naming words.
• They may name persons, animals, plants, places,
  things, substances, qualities, or ideas

Bart, armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock, cloud,
love, ghost, music, virtue
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Pronoun

• A word used in place of a noun

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Personal Pronouns

• I she they you
• me her them yourself
• myself herself themselves
  yourselves
• it he we who
• itself him us whom
• that himself ourselves

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Indefinite Pronouns

• Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in a
  general way
• each everyone nobody somebody

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Pronouns that Point Out Particular Things

• SINGULAR
• this
• that

• PLURAL
• these
• those

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Pronouns that Introduce Questions

• Who
• Which
• What

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The simple subject can be single or compound

• My friend and I have much in common.
• compound subject
• My friend brought a present.
• single subject

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Implied Subjects

• The command, or imperative, sentence has a you
  as the implied subject and no stated subject.
• (You) Read the notes.

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The object of a preposition cannot be a subject.

• The chairperson subject of the department
  object of the preposition directs the
  discussion.

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Verbs

• Show action or express being in relation to the
  subject of a sentence.

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Action Verbs

• Suggest movement or accomplishment of an idea or
  a deed
• He dropped the book. movement
• He read the book. accomplishment

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Being Verbs

• Indicate existence
• They were concerned.

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Verbs may occur as single words or phrases.

• He led the charge. single word
• She is leading the charge. phrase

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Compound verbs are joined by a word such as and
or or.

• She worked for twenty-five years
• and retired.

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Verbals are not verbs verbals are verblike words
that function as other parts of speech.

• Singing gerund acting as a noun is fun.
• I want to sing. infinitive acting as a noun
• object
• Singing participle acting as a modifier, he
• walked in the rain.

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Words such as never, not, and hardly are not
verbs they modify verbs.
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Locations of Subjects and Verbs

• Although the subject usually appears before the
  verb, it may follow the verb.
• There was justice in the verdict.

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A verb phrase may be separated into a question.

• Where had the defendant gone on
• that fateful night?

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Chapter 3

• Kinds of Sentences

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Types of Sentences

• On the basis of number and kinds of clauses,
  sentences may be classified as
• Simple
• Compound
• Complex
• Compound-Complex

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Clauses

• Clause a group of words with a subject and a
  verb that functions as a part or all of a
  complete sentence.
• There are two kinds of clauses independent
  (main) and dependent (subordinate).

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Independent Clauses

• An independent (main) clause is a group of words
  with a subject and a very that can stand alone
  and make sense.
• An independent clause expresses a complete
  thought by itself and can be written as a
  separate sentence.
• I have the money.

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Dependent Clauses

• A dependent clause is a group of words with a
  subject and verb that depends on a main clause to
  give it meaning.
• Functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective,
  or an adverb.
• When you are ready.

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Relative Clauses

• A type of dependent clause
• Begins with a relative pronoun, such as that,
  which, or who
• The player who answers the most questions
  correctly wins the game.

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Phrases

• Groups of words that go together
• Do not have a subject and verb
• Types prepositional phrases and verbal phrases
  (infinitive phrases, participial phrases, gerund
  phrases)

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Types of Sentences

• SIMPLE One independent clause
• Susan was having trouble with her spelling.
• COMPOUND Two or more independent clauses
• Susan was having trouble with her spelling, and
  she purchased a computer with a spell checker.

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Types of Sentences

• COMPLEX One independent clause and one or more
  dependent clauses.
• Because Susan was having trouble with her
  spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell
  checker.
• COMPOUND-COMPLEX Two or more independent clauses
  and one or more dependent clauses.
• Because Susan was having trouble with her
  spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell
  checker, and the results made her expenditure
  worthwhile.

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Punctuation

• Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction
  (FANBOYS) between two independent clauses.
• The movie was good, but the tickets were
  expensive.

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Punctuation

• Use a comma after a dependent clause that appears
  before the main clause.
• When the bus arrived, we quickly boarded.

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Punctuation

• Use a semicolon between two independent clauses
  in one sentence if there is no coordinating
  conjunction.
• The bus arrived we quickly boarded.

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Punctuation

• Use a semicolon before and usually a comma after
  a conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise,
  therefore, on the other hand, and in fact), and
  between two independent clauses (no comma after
  then, also, now, thus, and soon).
• The Dodgers have not played well this year
  however, the Giants have won ten games in a row.
• Spring training went well then the regular
  baseball season began.

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Chapter 4

• Combining Sentences

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Coordination

• If you want to communicate two equally important
  and closely related ideas, place them close
  together, probably in a compound sentence (two or
  more independent clauses).

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FANBOYS Coordinating Conjunctions

• For shows a reason
• And shows equal ideas
• Nor indicates a negative choice or alternative
• But shows contrast
• Or indicates a choice or an alternative
• Yet indicates contrast
• So points to a result

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Combining Sentences by Using a Coordinating
Conjunction

• When you combine two sentences by using a
  coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), drop the
  first period, change the capital letter of the
  second sentence to a small letter, and insert a
  comma before the coordinating conjunction.
• I like your home. I can visit for only three
  months.
• I like your home, but I can visit for only three
  months.

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Combining Sentences by Using a Semicolon

• When you combine two sentences by using a
  semicolon, replace the first period with a
  semicolon and change the capital letter that
  begins the second sentence to a small letter. If
  you wish to use a conjunctive adverb, insert it
  after the semicolon and usually follow it with a
  comma.
• I like your home. I can visit for only three
  months.
• I like your home I can visit for only three
  months.
• I like your home however, I can visit for only
  three months.

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Subordination

• If you have two ideas that are closely related,
  but one is secondary or dependent on the other,
  you may want to use a complex sentence.
• My neighbors are considerate. They never play
  loud music.
• Because my neighbors are considerate, they never
  play loud music.

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Punctuating Complex Sentences

• If the dependent clause comes first, set it off
  with a comma.
• Because the dog has no hands or words, he licks
  me to show affection.

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Punctuating Complex Sentences

• If the dependent clause comes after the main
  clause, set it off with a comma only if you use
  some form of the word though or if the words are
  not necessary to convey the basic meaning of the
  sentence.
• Edmund Hillary was knighted by Queen Elizabeth
  II because he was one of the first two men to
  climb Mt. Everest.
• Other mountain climbers soon duplicated his
  feat, though they received less recognition.

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Punctuation of Relative Clauses

• A relative clause should be set off with commas
  when it is not necessary to the sentence. Do no
  set the clause off if it is necessary for the
  meaning of the sentence.
• Necessary No one who failed the eye test will
  get a drivers license.
• Unnecessary Mr. McGoo, who failed his eye
  test, did not get a drivers license.

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Coordination and Subordination

• At times you may want to show the relationship of
  three or more ideas within one sentence. If that
  relationship involves two or more main ideas and
  one or more supporting ideas, the combination can
  be stated in a compound-complex sentence (two or
  more independent clauses and one or more
  dependent clauses.)

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Punctuating Compound and Complex Sentences

• Use punctuation consistent with that of the
  compound and complex sentences.
• Kafka produced illegible handwritten papers. At
  that time he had not learned how to operate a
  word processor. Now he hands in clean, attractive
  pages.Before Kafka learned how to operate a
  word processor, he produced illegible handwritten
  papers, but now he hands in clean, attractive
  pages.

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Other Methods of Combining Ideas

• Use an appositive phrase, a group of words that
  immediately follows a noun or pronoun and renames
  it.
• Garth Brooks claims Yukon, Oklahoma, as his
  hometown. He is a famous singer.
• Garth Brooks, a famous singer, claims Yukon,
  Oklahoma as his hometown.
• Use a prepositional phrase, a preposition
  followed by a noun or pronoun object.
• John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super
  Bowl victories. Both triumphs occurred in the
  1990s.
• John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super
  Bowl victories in the 1990s.

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• Drop the subject in the sentence that follows and
  combine the sentences.
• Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished
  during her lifetime. It was finally discovered
  and celebrated more than half a century later.
• Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished
  during her lifetime but was finally discovered
  and celebrated more than half a century later.
• Use a participial phrase, a group of words that
  includes a participle, which is a verbal that
  usually ends in ing or ed.
• The turtle plodded without rest stops. It won
  the race against the rabbit.
• Plodding without rest stops, the turtle one the
  race against the rabbit.

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Common Omissions

• Subjects
• Verbs
• That as a conjunction
• Prepositions

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Techniques for Achieving Variety in Sentences

• Types
• Order
• Length
• Beginnings

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Chapter 5

• Correcting Fragments, Comma Splices, and Run-Ons

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Complete Sentences

• Each complete sentence must have an independent
  clause, a group of words that contains a subject
  and a verb, and can stand alone.
• He enrolled for the fall semester.

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Fragments

• Fragment a word or group of words without a
  subject, without a verb, or without both
• A correct sentence signals completeness a
  fragment signals incompleteness
• You expect the speaker or writer of a fragment to
  go on and finish the idea.
• Common unacceptable fragments
• Dependent clause only When she came.
• Phrase(s) only Waiting there for some help.
• No subject in main clause Went to the library.
• No verb in main clause She being the only person
  there.

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Dependent Clause Fragments

• A dependent clause cannot stand by itself because
  it begins with a subordinating word.
• Because he left.
• When she worked.
• Although they slept.

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Relative Clauses as Fragments

• A relative clause is a type of dependent clause.
• If it is punctuated as a sentence by itself, it
  is incorrect.
• Who dont clean up after themselves.

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Phrase Fragments

• A verbal phrase, a prepositional phrase, and an
  appositive phrase may carry ideas, but each is
  incomplete because it lacks a subject and verb.
• Verbal Phrase having completed his initial
  research
• Having completed his initial research, he
  refined his outline.
• Prepositional Phrase in the store
• She worked in the store.
• Appositive Phrase a successful business
• Marks Brothers, a successful business, sells
  clothing.

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Fragments as Word Groups Without Subjects or
Without Verbs

• Each conventional sentence must have an
  independent clause, meaning a word or a group of
  words that contains a subject and a verb and that
  can stand alone.

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Acceptable Fragments

• Interjections Great! Hooray! Whoa!
• Exclamations What a day! How terrible! What a
  bother!
• Greetings Hello. Good morning. Good night. Good
  evening.
• Questions What for? Why not? Where to?
• Informal conversation (What time is it?) Eight
  oclock. Really.

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Comma Splices

• A comma splice consists of two independent
  clauses with only a comma between them.
• Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a
  bonus.
• A comma by itself cannot join two independent
  clauses.

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Run-ons

• The run-on differs from the comma splice in only
  one respect It has no comma between the
  independent clauses.
• Maria exceeded her sales quota she received a
  bonus.
• Independent clauses must be properly connected.

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Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons

• Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for,
  and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to correct the comma
  splice or run-on.
• Maria exceeded her sales quota, and she received
  a bonus.

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Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons

• Use a subordinating conjunction(such as because,
  after, that, when, although, since, how, till,
  unless, before) to make one clause dependent and
  correct the comma splice or run-on.
• Because Maria exceeded her sales quota, she
  received a bonus.

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Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons

• Use a semicolon(with or without a conjunctive
  adverb such as however, otherwise, therefore,
  similarly, hence, on the other hand, then,
  consequently, also, thus) to correct the comma
  splice or run-on.
• Maria exceeded her sales quota therefore, she
  received a bonus.
• Maria exceeded her sales quota she received a
  bonus.

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Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons

• Use a period to replace a comma and add a capital
  letter (to correct a comma splice), or use a
  period between two independent clauses and add a
  capital letter(to correct a run-on).
• Maria exceeded her sales quota. She received a
  bonus.

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Chapter 6

• Balancing Sentence Parts

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Parallelism

• Parallelism is a balance of one structure with
  another of the same kindnouns with nouns, verbs
  with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, phrases
  with phrases, and clauses with clauses.
• Goats, chickens, and cows nouns roamed the
  yard and caused verbs considerable
  confusion.Tanya walked into the room and out of
  the room with grace. prepositional
  phrasesTanya walked into the room, and she
  walked out of the room with grace. independent
  clauses

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Faulty Parallel Structure

• Faulty parallel structure is awkward and draws
  unfavorable attention to what is being said.
• Hitting home runs and to catch balls in the
  outfield were his main concerns.
• should be
• Hittingand catching or
• To hitand to catch.

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Words that Signal Parallel Structure

• All coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS for,
  and, nor, but, or, yet, so) can give such
  signals.
• My car is inexpensive and plain.
• My dog is ugly, but it is a good companion.

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Combination Words that Signal Parallelism

• The most common ones are either/or, neither/nor,
  not only/but also, both/and, and whether/or.
• Patsy decided that propagating plants could be
  either a hobby or a business but not both.
• A noun follows each of the combination words.

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Chapter 7

• Verbs

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Standard Usage

• Standard usage is appropriate for the kind of
  writing and speaking you are likely to do in your
  college work and future career.

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Regular and Irregular Verbs

• Whereas regular verbs are predictablehaving an
  ed ending for past and past participle
  formsirregular verbs, as the term suggests,
  follow no definite pattern.
• raise, raised, raised regular
• see, saw, seen irregular

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Present Tense

• Present tense verbs show an action or a state of
  being that is occurring at the present time.
• For he, she, and it, regular verbs in the present
  tense add an -s or an -es to the base word.
• If the verb ends in -y, you might have to drop
  the -y and add -ies for he, she, and it.

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Past Tense

• Past tense verbs show an action or a state of
  being that occurred in the past.
• For regular verbs in the past tense, add -ed to
  the base form.
• If the base form already ends in -e, add just d.
• If the base form ends in a consonant followed by
  -y, drop the -y and add -ied.

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Past Participles

• The past participle uses the helping verbs has,
  have, or had along with the past tense of the
  verb.
• For regular verbs, whose past tense ends in -ed,
  the past participle form of the verb is the same
  as the past tense.

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Problem Verbs

• Certain verbs (present tense here) can be
  troublesome and should be studied with care.
• lie, lay
• sit, set
• rise, raise

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Twelve Verb Tenses

• SIMPLE TENSES
• present
• past
• future
• PERFECT TENSES
• present perfect
• past perfect
• future perfect

• PROGRESSIVE TENSES
• present progressive
• past progressive
• future progressive
• PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
• TENSES
• present perfect progressive
• past perfect progressive
• future perfect progressive

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Community Dialects

• Expressive and colorful
• May not adhere to the rules for standard usage
• Often not appropriate for college and
  professional writing

102
Subject-Verb Agreement

• If the subject is singular, the verb should be
  singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb
  should be plural.
• The price of the shoes is high.
• The advantages of that shoe are obvious.

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Consistency in Tense

• There are no inflexible rules about selecting a
  tense for a certain kind of writing, but you
  should be consistent, changing tense only for a
  good reason.
• The present tense is customarily used in writing
  about literature.
• The past tense is likely to serve you best in
  writing about your personal experiences and about
  historical events .

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Voice

• The active voice expression (subject, active
  verb, and sometimes object) is usually preferred
  over the passive voice expression (subject as the
  receiver of action, with doer unstated or at the
  end of a prepositional phrase.)
• She read the book. active
• The book was read by her. passive

105
Strong Verbs

• In your revision, replace weak verbs with strong
  ones.
• He was the first to leave. weak verb
• He left first.strong verb

106
Chapter 8

• Pronouns

107
Pronouns and Pronoun Case

• A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a
  noun.
• Case is the form a pronoun takes as it fills a
  position in a sentence.

108
Subjective Pronouns

• Subjective-case pronouns are I, he, and she
  (singular) and we and they (plural). Who can be
  either singular or plural.
• Subjective case pronouns can fill subject
  positions.
• We dance in the park.
• It was she who spoke.
• referring back to and meaning the same as the
  subject
• Others are in incompletely stated clauses
  (signaled by than or as)

109
Objective Pronouns

• Objective-case pronouns are me, him, and her
  (singular) and us and them (plural). Whom can be
  either singular or plural.
• Objective-case pronouns fill object positions.
• We saw her in the library. object of a verb
• They gave the results to us. object of a
  preposition

110
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun
Case to Use

• If you have a compound element (such as a subject
  or an object of a preposition), consider only the
  pronoun part.
• They will visit you and (I, me).
• Consider They will visit me.

111
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case
to Use

• If the next important word after who or whom in a
  statement is a noun or pronoun, the word choice
  will be whom otherwise, it will be who.
  Disregard qualifier clauses such as It seems and
  I feel. The person whom judges like will win.
• The person who works hardest will win.
• The person who, we think, worked hardest won.
  ignoring the qualifier clause

112
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case
to Use

• Lets is made up of the words let and us and
  means You let us therefore, when you select a
  pronoun to follow it, consider the two original
  words and select another object wordme.
• Lets you and me go to town.

113
Pronoun Agreement

• A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person,
  number, and gender.

114
Pronoun Agreement

• Avoid needless shifting in person, which means
  shifting in point of view, such as from I to you.
• I was having trouble. You could see disaster
  ahead.
• Change to I was having trouble. I could see
  disaster ahead.

115
Pronoun Agreement

• Most problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement
  involve number. The principles are simple If the
  antecedent (the word the pronoun refers back to)
  is singular, use a singular pronoun. If the
  antecedent is plural, use a plural pronoun.
• Roger forgot his notebook.
• Many students cast their votes.
• Someone lost his or her not their book.

116
Pronoun Agreement

• The pronoun should agree with its antecedent in
  gender, if the gender of the antecedent is
  specific. Masculine and feminine pronouns are
  gender-specific he, him, she, her. Others are
  neuter I, we, me, us, it, they, them, who,
  whom, that, which.

117
Pronoun Agreement

• The words who and whom refer to people. That can
  refer to ideas, things, and people but usually
  does not refer to individuals. Which refers to
  ideas and things but not to people. To avoid a
  perceived sex bias, you can use he or she or his
  or her instead of just he or his however, many
  writers simply make antecedents and pronouns
  plural. Everyone should revise his or her
  composition carefully. Students should revise
  their compositions carefully.

118
Pronoun Reference

• A pronoun must refer clearly to its antecedent.
  Because a pronoun is a substitute word, it can
  express meaning clearly and definitely only if
  its antecedent is easily identified.

119
Chapter 9

• Adjectives and Adverbs

120
Adjectives

• Adjectives modify (describe) nouns and pronouns
  and answer the questions
• Which one?
• What kind?
• How many?

121
Adverbs

• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other
  adverbs and answer the questions
• Where?
• When?
• Why?
• How?
• To what degree?
• Most words ending in ly are adverbs.

122
Making Comparisons with Adjectives

• Some adjectives follow a regular pattern.
• nice, nicer, nicest
• lonely, more lonely, most lonely

123
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective
Forms

• Add er to short adjectives (one or two
  syllables) to rank units of two.
• Jethro is shorter than Cy.
• Add est to short adjectives (one or two
  syllables) to rank units of more than two.
• Senator Goodyear is the brightest
• person in Congress.
• c. Add the word more to long adjectives (three
  or more syllables) to rank units of two.
• Your state is more prosperous than mine.

124
More Rules for Comparative and Superlative
Adjective Forms

• Add the word most to long adjectives (three or
  more syllables) to rank units of three or more.
• Your state is the most prosperous state in the
  West.
• Some adjectives are irregular in the way they
  change to show comparison.
• good, better, best
• bad, worse, worst

125
Making Comparisons with Adverbs

• Some adverbs follow a regular pattern.
• sadly, more sadly, most sadly
• carefully, more carefully, most carefully

126
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms

• Add er to the comparative form and est to the
  superlative form.
• Pierre works hard. positive
• Pierre works harder than Simon. comparative
• Pierre works hardest of all students in the
  class. superlative

127
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverbs
Forms

• Add the word more to adverbs of two or more
  syllables for the comparative form and the word
  most to adverbs of two or more syllables for the
  superlative form.
• Sultana proofread carefully. positive
• Sultana proofread more carefully than Venny.
  comparative
• Sultana proofread most carefully in all the
  class. superlative

128
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms

• In some cases the word less may be substituted
  for more and the word least for most.
• Martelle examined the contract less carefully
  during her second reading. comparative
• Martelle examined the contract most carefully
  during her third reading. superlative

129
Double Negatives

• Avoid double negatives. Words such as no, not,
  none, nothing, never, hardly, barely, and
  scarcely should not be combined.

130
Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs

• Do not confuse adjectives with adverbs. Among the
  most commonly confused adjectives and adverbs are
• good / well
• bad / badly
• real / really

131
Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs

• The words good, bad, and real are always
  adjectives.
• The words badly and really are always adverbs.
• Well is usually an adverb.
• Well is sometimes an adjective.

132
Incorrect Clint did good. Good is not an
adverb Correct Joline felt good. Good does
not address the matter of feeling it indicates
the condition of the subject, Joline. Correct
Clint did well. Used here as an adverb, well
modifies the verb did. Correct Sigmund said,
Carl, you are not a well person. Used here
as an adjective, well modifies the noun person.
133
Incorrect Elvis was real happy with his new
disguise. Happy is an adjective modifying the
noun Elvis, and real modifies that adjective.
Because only adverbs modify adjectives, we need
the word really. Correct Elvis was really
happy with his new disguise.
134
Incorrect I feel badly. Badly is an adverb
but here indicates the condition of the subject
therefore, it modifies the pronoun
I. Correct I feel bad. Bad is an adjective
modifying the pronoun I. Correct I explained
that badly. Badly, an adverb, modifies the
verb explained.
135
Dangling Modifiers

• A dangling modifier gives information but fails
  to make clear which word or group of words it
  refers to.
• Incorrect Ignoring the traffic signals, the car
  crashed into a truck.
• The car is not ignoring the driver is.
• Correct Ignoring the traffic signals, the
  driver crashed his car into a truck.

136
Misplaced Modifiers

• A misplaced modifier is placed so that it
  modifies the wrong word or words.
• Incorrect The monkeys attracted the attention
  of the elegant women who picked fleas off one
  another.
• Correct The monkeys who picked fleas off one
  another attracted the attention of the elegant
  women.

137
Chapter 10

• Punctuation and Capitalization

138
Three Marks of End Punctuation.

• Periods use after a statement or common
  abbreviations.
• Questions marks use at the end of a direct
  question, not indirect questions.
• She asked me what caused the slide.
• Exclamation points use after a word or group of
  words that expresses strong feeling. Dont
  overwork it or use double exclamation points.

139
Commas

• The comma is used to separate and set off
  sentence elements.
• Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by
  one of the coordinating conjunctionsfor, and,
  nor, but, or, yet, so
• We went to the game, but it was cancelled.
• Use a comma after long introductory modifiers.
  The modifiers may be phrases or dependent
  clauses.
• Before she and I arrived, the meeting was
  called to order.

140
Commas

• Use a comma to separate words, phrases, and
  clauses in a series. He ran down the street,
  across the park, and into the forest.
• Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives not
  joined by and that modify the same noun. I need
  a sturdy, reliable truck.

141
Commas

• Use a comma to separate sentence elements that
  might be misread. Outside, the thunder rolled.
  Use commas to set off nonessential (unnecessary
  for the meaning of the sentence) words, phrases,
  and clauses. Maria, who studied hard, will pass.

142
Commas

• Use commas to set off nouns used as direct
  address. What do you intend to do, Hamlet?
• Use commas to separate the numbers in a
  date. November 11, 1918, is a day worth
  remembering.
• Use commas to separate the city from the state.
  No comma is used between the state and the ZIP
  code. Boston, MA 02110

143
Semicolons

• The semicolon indicates a longer pause and
  stronger emphasis than the comma. It is used
  principally to separate main clauses within a
  sentence.

144
Semicolons

• Use a semicolon to separate main clauses not
  joined by a coordinating conjunction.
• You must buy that car today tomorrow will be
  too late.

145
Semicolons

• Use a semicolon between two main clauses joined
  by a conjunctive adverb (such as however,
  otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the
  other hand, then, consequently, accordingly,
  thus).
• It was very late therefore, I remained at the
  hotel.

146
Quotation Marks

• Quotation marks are used principally to set off
  direct quotations. A direct quotation consists of
  material taken from the written work or the
  direct speech of others it is set off by double
  quotation marks. Single quotation marks are used
  to set off a quotation within a quotation.
• He said, I dont remember if she said, Wait
  for me.

147
Quotation Marks

• Use quotation marks to set off slang, technical
  terms, and special words.
• The platoon system changed the game of
  football. technical term

148
Italics

• Italics (slanting type) are also used to call
  special attention to certain words of groups of
  words. In handwriting or typing, such words are
  underlined.

149
Italics

• Italicize (underline) foreign words and phrases
  that are still listed in the dictionary as
  foreign.
• modus operandi
• perestroika

150
Italics

• Italicize titles of books long poems plays
  magazines motion pictures musical compositions,
  newspapers works of art names of aircraft and
  ships and letters, numbers, and words referred
  to by their own name.
• War and Peace
• Apollo 12
• Leaving the second o out of sophomore.

151
The Dash

• The dash is used when a stronger pause than a
  comma is needed. It can also be used to indicate
  a break in the flow of thought and to emphasize
  words (less formal than the colon in this
  situation.)
• I cant remember the townnow I doits Tupelo.

152
The Colon

• The colon is a formal mark of punctuation used
  chiefly to introduce something that is to follow,
  such as a list, a quotation, or an explanation.
• These cars are my favorites Cadillac,
  Chevrolet, Toyota, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac.

153
Parentheses

• Parentheses are used to set off material that is
  of relatively little importance to the main
  thought of the sentence. Such materialnumbers,
  parenthetical material, figures, supplementary
  material, and sometimes explanatory
  detailsmerely amplifies the main thought.
• The years of the era (1961-1973) were full of
  action.
• I paid twenty dollars (20) for that mousepad.

154
Brackets

• Brackets are used within a quotation to set off
  editorial additions or corrections made by the
  person who is quoting.
• It the Yalta Agreement contained many
  mistakes.

155
The Apostrophe

• The apostrophe is used with nouns and indefinite
  pronouns to show possession, to show the omission
  of letters and figures in contractions, and to
  form the plurals of letters, figures, and words
  referred to as words.
• mans coat
• girls clothes
• cant
• five ands
• its contraction

156
The Hyphen

• The hyphen is used to link two or more words
  together into a single compound word.
  Hyphenation, therefore, is essentially a spelling
  problem rather than a punctuation problem.
  Because the hyphen is not used with any degree of
  consistency, it is best to consult your
  dictionary to learn current usage.

157
Uses of the Hyphen

• Use a hyphen to separate the parts of many
  compound words. about-face go-between
• Use a hyphen between prefixes and proper
  names. all-American mid-July
• Use a hyphen with spelled-out compound numbers up
  to ninety-nine and with fractions. Twenty-six on
  e hundred two-thirds
• Use a hyphen to join two or more words used as a
  single-adjective modifier before a
  noun. First-class service hard-fought
  game sad-looking mother

158
Use English Conventions for Capital Letters

• Capitalize the first word of a sentence
• Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived
  from proper nouns such as the names of persons,
  countries, nationalities and races, days of the
  week, months, and titles of books
• Capitalize words denoting family relationships
  when they are used before a name or substituted
  for a name.
• The minister greeted Aunt May, my grandfather,
  and Mother.

159
Chapter 11

• Spelling and Commonly Confused Words

160
Spelling Tips

• Do not omit letters.Incorrect libary Correct
  libraryDo not add letters.Incorrect
  athalete Correct athleteDo not substitute
  incorrect letters for correct letters.Incorrect
  technacal Correct technicalDo not transpose
  letters.Incorrect perfer Correct prefer

161
Spelling Tips

• Apply the spelling rules for spelling ei and ie
  words correctly.Use i before eExcept after
  cOr when sounded like aAs in neighbor and
  weighExceptions either, financier, height,
  leisure, neither, seize, species, weird

162
Spelling Tips

• Apply the rules for dropping the final e or
  retaining the final e when a suffix is added.
• Correct come coming

163
Spelling Tips

• Apply the rules for doubling a final consonant
  before a suffix beginning with a vowel if the
  final syllable is accented.
• Correct transfer transferred

164
Spelling Tips

• Study the list of frequently misspelled words.

165
Confused Spelling/Confusing Words

• Some words are sometimes misspelled because they
  are mispronounced or share a pronunciation with
  another word.
• Incorrect alright
• Correct all right
• Two words with the same sound and different
  meanings hear here

166
Avoiding Wordy Phrases

• At the present time
• Due to the fact that
• Until such time as
• I personally feel that
• At that point in time
• In this day and age

167
Chapter 12

• The Writing Process Paragraphs and Essays

168
The Paragraph

• A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate
  to a single idea.
• The controlling idea is stated in the topic
  sentence.
• All of the other sentences explain or support the
  topic sentence.

169
The Essay

• The essay contains multiple paragraphs.
• It begins with an introductory paragraph that
  presents the main idea (thesis).
• The main idea is developed in several paragraphs
  that make up the body of the essay.
• An essay usually ends with a concluding paragraph
  that gives a feeling of finality.

170
The Writing Process

• Using prewriting techniques to explore a topic
• Limiting and then developing the topic, usually
  with an outline
• Writing a first draft
• Revising the draft as often as necessary
• Editing the material

171
Prewriting

• Prewriting includes activities you do before
  writing your first draft or whenever you need new
  ideas.
• These strategies help you get started and develop
  your ideas.
• Prewriting strategies freewriting,
  brainstorming, clustering, defining a topic, and
  outlining

172
Freewriting

• Write without stopping, letting your ideas tumble
  forth.
• Helps you get your project underway and deal with
  writers block.

173
Brainstorming

• Generating key words and phrases related to the
  topic
• Begin by asking Who? What? Where? When? Why? and
  How? questions about your subject or by merely
  listing ideas concerning your subject.

174
Clustering

• Start by double-bubbling your topic.
• Then ask What comes to mind? and single-bubble
  other ideas on spokes radiating out from the
  double bubble.

175
The Topic Sentence

• An effective topic sentence has both a subject
  and a focus. The subject is what you intend to
  write about. The focus is what you intend to do
  with your subject.
• Example Wilson High School
• subject
• offers a well-balanced academic program.
• focus

176
Outlining

• Pattern for showing the relationship of ideas

177
Topic sentence I. Major
support A. Minor support B. Minor
support 1. Details or examples 2. Details
or examples II. Major support A. Minor
support B. Minor support
178
Writing Your First Draft

• First (or rough) draft your initial writing
• As you write, pay close attention to your outline
• But do not get caught up in correcting and
  polishing your writing during this stage

179
Revising Your Writing

• Rearrange and polish the writing
• Put sentences in the best possible order and come
  up with the best possible words
• The main points of revision are contained in the
  acronym CLUESS.

180
CLUESS

• Coherence Does the material flow smoothly, with
  each idea leading logically to the next?
• Language Are the words appropriate for the
  message, occasion, and audience?
• Unity Are all ideas related to and subordinate
  to the topic sentence?
• Emphasis Have you used techniques such as
  repetition and placement of ideas to emphasize
  your main point(s)?
• Support Have you presented material to back up,
  justify, or prove your topic sentence?
• Sentences Have you used some variety of
  structure and avoided fragments, comma splices,
  and run-ons?

181
Editing Examine your work carefully.

• Look for problems in
• Capitalization,
• Omissions,
• Punctuation, and
• Spelling.
• (COPS)

182
Using the Writing Process Worksheet

• Explore your topic, organize your ideas, and
  write your paragraphs using the Writing Process
  Worksheet as your guide.
• Photocopy the blank form in the book or print it
  from the Student Companion site.

183
Chapter 13

• Combined and Specific Patterns of Writing and
  Writing Topics

184
Combined Patterns of Writing

• Patterns can help you organize your thoughts so
  that your audience can easily understand your
  message.
• A well-written essay is usually a combination of
  different patterns Descriptive Narration,
  Exemplification, Analysis by Division, Process
  Analysis, Cause and Effect, Comparison and
  Contrast, Definition, Argument

185
Descriptive Narration

• Include these points
• Situation
• Conflict
• Struggle
• Outcome
• Meaning

186
As appropriate, use the following in narratives

• Images that appeal to the senses (sight, smell,
  taste, hearing, touch) and other details to
  advance action
• Dialogue
• Transitional devices to indicate chronological
  order

187
Transitional Words for Narratives

• FOR DESCRIPTION Place above, over, under,
  below, nearby, near, across, beyond, among, to
  the right, to the left, in the background, in the
  foreground, further, beside, opposite, within
  sight, out of sight
• FOR NARRATION Time after, before, later,
  earlier, initially, soon, recently, next, today,
  tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, until, currently,
  when, finally, not long after, immediately, (at)
  first, (at) last, third, previously, in the
  meantime, meanwhile

188
In narration,

• Give details concerning action
• Be consistent with point of view and verb tense
• Keep in mind that most narratives written as
  college assignments will have an expository
  purpose that is, they explain a specific idea

189
Exemplification

• Using examples to
• Explain
• Convince
• Amuse

190
Characteristics of Good Examples

• Vivid examples attract attention
• Specific examples are identifiable
• Representative examples are typical and therefore
  the basis for generalization

191
In exemplification

• Tie your examples clearly to your thesis
• Draw your examples from what you have read,
  heard, and experienced
• Brainstorm a list or cluster of possible examples
  before you write

192
Transitional Words for Exemplification

• For example, as an example, another example, for
  instance, such as, including, specifically,
  especially, in particular, to illustrate, as an
  illustration, that is, i.e. (meaning that is),
  e.g. (meaning for example)

193
Analysis by Division

• Almost anything can be analyzed by division
• How parts of the ear work in hearing
• How parts of the eye work in seeing
• How parts of the heart work in pumping blood
  throughout the body

194
Procedure for Analysis by Division

• Step 1 begin with something that is a unit
• Step 2 state the principle by which that unit
  functions
• Step 3 divide the unit into parts according to
  the principle
• Step 4 Discuss each of the parts in relation to
  the unit

195
To apply that procedure to a new boss

• Unit Manager
• Principle of function Effective as a leader
• Parts based on the Fair, intelligent, stable,
• principle competent in the field
• Discussion Consider each part in
• relation to the persons
• effectiveness as a manager

196
Transition Words for Analysis by Division

• Time or numbering first, second, third, another,
  last, finally, soon, later, currently, before,
  along with, another part (section, component)
• Space above, below, to the left, to the right,
  near, beyond, under, next to, in the background,
  split, divide
• Emphasis most important, equally important,
  central to the, to this end, as a result, taken
  collectively, with this purpose in mind, working
  with the, in fact, of course, above all, most of
  all, especially, primarily, without question

197
Two Types of Process Analysis

• Directive process analysis explains how to do
  something it usually addresses the reader as
  you
• Informative process analysis explains how
  something was (is) done by giving data does not
  use the words you or your

198
Basic Forms for Process Analysis

• Directive
• Preparation
• A.
• B.
• Steps
• A.
• B.
• C.

• Informative
• Background/context
• A.
• B.
• Sequence
• A.
• B.
• C.

199
Transitional Words for Process Analysis

• Order will usually be chronological (time-based)
  in some sense first, second, third, then, soon,
  now, next, finally, at last, therefore,
  consequently
• Words used to show the passage of time such as
  hours, days of the week, and so on (especially
  for informative process analysis)

200
Cause and Effect

• Determine whether your topic should mainly inform
  or mainly persuade
• Use the right tone for your purpose and audience

201
Using Listing to Develop Cause and Effect

• Event, Situation, or Trend
• Causes
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.

• Effects
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.

202
Decide whether to concentrate on

• Causes
• Effects
• Combination of Causes and Effects

203
Basic Structure for Paragraph

• A typical outline might look like this
• Cause or Effect 1
• Cause or Effect 2
• Cause or Effect 3

204
Emphasis in Cause and Effect

• Lend emphasis to your main concern(s)causes,
  effects, or a combinationby repeating key
  words, such as
• Cause
• Reason
• Effect
• Result
• Consequence
• Outcome

205
Kinds of Causes and Effects

• Primary (main)
• Secondary (contributing)
• Immediate
• Remote

206
Order

• Time
• Space
• Emphasis

207
Transitional Words for Cause and Effect

• Cause as, because, because of, due to, for, for
  the reason that, since, bring about, another
  cause, for this reason, one cause, a second
  cause, another cause, a final cause
• Effect accordingly, finally, consequently,
  hence, so, therefore, thus, as a consequence, as
  a result, resulting

208
Comparison and Contrast

• Use the 4 Ps
• Purpose
• Points
• Pattern
• Presentation

209
Purpose

• Decide whether you are writing a work that is
  primarily comparison, primarily contrast, or
  balanced.
• During the exploration of your topic,
• define your purpose (inform or persuade)
  clearly.

210
Points

• Indicate your points of comparison or contrast,
  perhaps by listing
• Eliminate irrelevant points

211
Pattern

• After considering your topic and the planned
  focus, select the
• Subject-by-subject pattern
• Point-by-point pattern
• Compose an outline reflecting the pattern you
  select.

212
Basic Subject-by-Subject Pattern

• Subject X
• A. Point 1
• B. Point 2
• Subject Y
• A. Point 1
• B. Point 2

213
Basic Point-by-Point Pattern

• Point 1
• A. Subject X
• B. Subject Y
• Poin